Mahabharata Quiz - 107

 

Question – 107

An ‘Epoch of Arundhati’ has been suggested running for 6000 years within which period the Mahabharata was supposed to have taken place. How would you prove that it is wrong?

Answer:

Any historical research on dating has two components – primary and secondary sources of evidence.  Primary sources are contemporary to the period of the event. Secondaries are derived from the primary sources. The Epoch of Arundhati proposed by Mr. Nilesh Oak, running for 6000 years and forming the basis for the time of the Mahabharata is laden with issues of admissibility as a source of evidence. It is neither a primary evidence nor a secondary evidence.

1.     This Epoch is not primary evidence because nowhere it has been stated in the Mahabharata that such an Epoch existed and lasted for 6000 years.

2.     The Epoch is not secondary evidence because no literature composed at any time recognizes such an Epoch.

3.     It offers a range and choice of the year of Mahabharata that can only be arbitrary with no support from any evidence that can be qualified as primary.

4.     The Epoch of Arundhati suffers from lack of exactness for being the product of Hypothetico-deductive method of science having no relevance to the historical dating of the Mahabharata.

Based on these, this concept of the Epoch could never pass acceptance among historians. Why should it in the case of Itihāsa research? 

Mahabharata Quiz - 106

 Check the previous question here

Question – 106

Couldn’t there be a chance that Arundhati indeed appeared differently during the Mahabharata period under consideration?

Answer:

There is no chance for the change of position of Arundhati (Alcor) with reference to Vasishtha (Mizar) considering two observations found in the Mahabharata expressed by the contemporary characters.

1.     At the marriage of Draupadi with the Pandava-s Kunti blessed her to be like Draupadi. Here she means Draupadi following the Pandava-s like Arundhati following the footsteps of Vasishtha. If it was the other way round – of Vasishtha following Arundati, Kunti could not have said this, for, which mother – particularly of those times liked her sons to be behind their wife?

2.     Lying on the arrow bed after the war, Bheeshma narrates the life history of one Sāndli and says that since she followed her husband like Arundhati, she was elevated into a star like Arundhati.

If during the war period Arundhati had changed her position from being behind to Vasishtha into putting her husband behind her, this could not have been told by Bheeshma. So, what Vyasa observed was- as he said a nimitta - a temporary aberration in the way Arundhati appeared at a particular time. It is foolish to believe that it was a permanent appearance and  construct a theory on the assumption that Arundhati changed her position for a long period of time – say for 6000 years as Nilesh oak claims.

 

Derivation of Adi Shankara’s period from Karikāla’s time

 Part 1 : Karikal Chola who built Kallanai (Grand Anicut) was a contemporary of Adi Shankara

Part 2: History of Karikāl Chola and Iḷam Thirayan and the route to Kanchi gleaned from Sangam texts

Part 3: Karikāl Chola's conquest of Kanchi and the expedition to the Himalayas

Part 4: Kallaṇai was built by Karikāl Chola after a personal tragedy of loss of his son-in-law

Part 5: The inundation of Pūmpukār

Part 6: The time period of Karikāl Chola

Adi Shankara’s time which I will be deriving from the Panchanga features given by the Shankara mutts must match with this period of Kallaṇai if Karikāl Chola was Rājasena who carried out the orders of Adi Shankara in building Varadaraja temple. Ekāmbareswarar temple and Kamakshi temple. What is certain is that Karikāl Chola was associated with the development of Ekāmbareswarar temple as we can see from an image of Karikāla in this temple.

Karikaala was also remembered by Tirugyana Sambandar in his verse on Ekambareshwara of Kanchi. Found in the second Tirumurai, the verse (1596) runs as follows:

விண்ணுளார்; மறைகள்வேதம்விரித்தோதுவார்     

கண்ணுளார்; கழலின் வெல்வார் கரிகாலனை;   

 நண்ணுவார்; எழில்கொள்கச்சி நகர் ஏகம்பத்     

தண்ணலாராடுகின்றஅலங்காரம்மே

viN uLAr; maRaikaL vEtam virittu OtuvAr     

kaN uLAr; kazalin velvAr, kari kAlanai;     

naNNuvAr ezil koL kaccinakar Ekampattu                 

aNNalAr; ATukinRa alagkAra(m)mE!

Meaning:  Oh! Ye devotees! Have you seen the magnificent cosmic dance of our Lord Ekambaranaathar? It is a beauty at its best played by our Lord at Ekambaram temple in Kachchi city. Our Lord is present in the celestials. He is present in the eyes of those who recite Vedas. He won Karikāla by His feet. This Lord has His abode in the most sacred temple Ekambam which lies in the beautiful city of Kachchi.

People not being aware of Karikāla’s association with this Lord, translated the line about Karikāla as Shiva having kicked off Kāla, i.e., Yama by His feet. But the line is more than clear that Karikāla surrendered at the feet of Ekāmbareswarar.

The verse and the consecration of the image of Karikāla in the temple of this Lord at Kanchi make a case for Karikāla’s association with this temple which was not possible without Adi Shankara ordaining him to build this temple.

The statue of Karikāla in Ekāmbareswarar temple, Kanchi.

There is also a temple at Thiruppāsur, near Kanchi, on the way to Tiruvallur where the Sthala Purana says that Karikāl Chola was saved by the Lord of Thiruppāsur from the snake that was made to hurt Karikāla by the Jains. This is mentioned in Tiruththāndakam as follows:

'படவரவொன்றது ஆட்டிப் பாசூர் மேய பரஞ்சுடரைக் கண்டடியே னுய்ந்தவாறே'

If we search deeply, we may get more on Karikāla’s association with the temples in and around Kanchi and his devotion to the Shiva and other Gods of Sanatan Dharma. The development of this temple also could have been motivated by Adi Shankara. There is a likelihood of him receiving the knowledge of the Supreme from Adi Shankara.

As if to justify the rich knowledge he gained from Adi Shankara, there is a verse in Purananuru (verse 224) sung on his death by the poet, Karunguzhal Adhanār (கருங்குழல் ஆதனார்).

The poet praises him for the Vedic homa-s had had done and also as one who knows what is in store for him for having done these yajna-s.

யூப நெடும் தூண்

வேத வேள்வித் தொழின் முடித்ததூஉம் அறிந்தோன்.

From where did Karikāla get the knowledge of what was in store for him in doing these Homa-s? What world did he get for following these? Who taught him these views? In other words, who was his mentor? Rājasena alias Karikāla received this knowledge from none other than Adi Shankara. In the next write-up, we will focus on establishing the year of birth of Adi Shankara and see how it matches with the period of Karikāl Chola. 

(To be continued in another set of articles establishing Adi Shankara's date)

The time period of Karikāl Chola

 Part 1 : Karikal Chola who built Kallanai (Grand Anicut) was a contemporary of Adi Shankara

Part 2: History of Karikāl Chola and Iḷam Thirayan and the route to Kanchi gleaned from Sangam texts

Part 3: Karikāl Chola's conquest of Kanchi and the expedition to the Himalayas

Part 4: Kallaṇai was built by Karikāl Chola after a personal tragedy of loss of his son-in-law

Part 5: The inundation of Pūmpukār

The date of Karikāl Chola can be deduced by two means: 1. By the date of the poets who sang about him and 2. The date of the building of Kallaṇai. This dating is necessary to cross check the date of Adi Shankara.

The poets of his period were many and fortunately they appear along with others in different combinations helping us to establish their time. The foremost that I wish to point out is Nakkīrar. In 141^st verse of Agananuru he talks about Karikāl Chola in Idaiyāṛu – his early location before he became the Chief in Pūmpukār. Karikāl Chola must have been younger than Nakkīrar.

Nakkīrar was a poet of the 3^rd Tamil Sangam where he inaugurated his commentary on Irayanār Agapporul. That Sangam assembly was presided by the Pandyan king Ugra Peruvazhuthi (உக்ரப் பெருவழுதி). It is presumed Perunar Kiḷḷi (பெருநற் கிள்ளி), the predecessor of Karikāl Chola (in several inscriptions) attended that assembly, going by the 367^th verse of Purananuru in which poetess Auvaiyār praised them for coming together. So, Nakkīrar, Perunar Kiḷḷi, Ugra Peruvazhuthi and Auvaiyār were contemporaries with Karikāl Chola who was sung by Nakkīrar. 

Auvaiyār was a close friend of Adiyamān Nedumān Anji. Adiyamān Nedumaan Anji belonged to Satyaputra-s mentioned in Ashokan edicts. But the specific name Adiyamān Nedumān Anji appears in a Brahmi inscription in Jambai which has been dated to the 2^nd century BCE (p. 66, "Thamizh Brahmi Kalvettugal", T.S. Sreedhar, TN Archaeological Dept publication, 2006). This puts the time of Karikāl Chola in the 2^nd century BCE or in the later part of the 2^nd century BCE, he being younger than Nakkīrar, Auvaiyār, Perunar Kiḷḷi etc.

The time period of building Kallaṇai.

The date we deduced as above must match with the date of Kallaṇai. There is a verse found in olden texts, particularly a text called ‘Chola mandala Shatakam’ referring to a Kali date for the building of the Kallaṇai. This verse retrieved from different sources differ slightly from each other, but they unanimously refer to 990 years. If it is 990 years of Kali Yuga as given in one of the verses, it appears unreasonable. The verse runs as follows:

தொக்கக் கலியின் தொள்ளாயிரத்து தொண்ணூற்றின்

மிக்க கரிகால் வேந்துதித்துத் -தக்க பொன்னி

யாறு கரைகண்டான் பின் ஆதொண்டை வேந்து கச்சி

யூரு சென்றான் வேள்ளார ரொத்து.

This verse secured by Pandit L. Olaganatha Pillai, gives the date as 990 Kali Years, which makes it 2111 BCE.

There is another verse similar to this, found out by Olaganatha Pillai which gives the year as Śaka year.

தொக்க சகனிற் தொள்ளாயிரத்து தொண்ணூற்றின்

மிக்க கரிகால் வயவேந்தன் – பக்கம்

அலைக்கும் புனற்பொன்னொ யாற்றணையை யுட்டான்

மலைக்கும் கொடைக் கரத்தான் வந்து.

Here the first line refers to Śaka year 990. The resultant date in both Vikrama Śaka and Śālivāhana Śaka gives unrealistic date in the 10^th and 11^th century CE. There is another one giving Kali year 3090 giving the year 11 BCE.

தொக்கக் கலியின் மூவாயிரத்துத் தொண்ணூற்றில்

மிக்க கரிகால் வேந்தனுந்தான் – பக்க

மலைக்கும் புகழ்ப் பொன்னியாறு கரையிட்டான்

மலைக்கும் புயத்தான் உவந்து.

11 BCE is too close to Senguttuvan and Silappadhikaram which does not go well with nearly 5 generations between him and Karikāla. This poem retrieved by Somasundara Desikar, centres around 90 while others had 990. So, it appears 990 is the year somewhere in a specific millennium of the kali Yuga. The first two letters seem to have been corrupted and do not make proper sense in arriving at the exact date. The first two letters might refer to the millennium of the Kali yuga. Taking up in those lines,

In the first millennium of the Kali Yuga – 3101 – 990 = 2111BCE

In the second millennium of the Kali Yuga – 3101 – 1990 = 1111BCE

In the third millennium of the Kali Yuga – 3101 – 2990 = 111 BCE

The last one, 111 BCE matches with the evidence we got from the poets of Karikāla’s period. It was the 2^nd century BCE, but Karikāla was a little younger than all of them. So 111 BCE is a likely date for the construction of Kallaṇai. This shows that Adi Shankara lived in the 2^nd century BCE

(to be continued)

The inundation of Pūmpukār

 Part 1 : Karikal Chola who built Kallanai (Grand Anicut) was a contemporary of Adi Shankara

Part 2: History of Karikāl Chola and Iḷam Thirayan and the route to Kanchi gleaned from Sangam texts

Part 3: Karikāl Chola's conquest of Kanchi and the expedition to the Himalayas

Part 4: Kallaṇai was built by Karikāl Chola after a personal tragedy of loss of his son-in-law

Sometime after Nedumudi Kiḷḷi, Pūmpukār was lost into the sea. The next flooding was in Manimekalai-s time in the 1^st century CE. The earlier flood must have occurred in Karikāla’s time necessitating him in building a dam across the flow of Kaviri. Land can be flooded but the loss of a city like Pūmpukār could not have happened by a flood in the Kaviri. Normally a coastal land is lost into the sea in the event of an earthquake as in the case of Pavlopetri (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavlopetri) which submerged 5000 years ago. Today the submerged parts of Pūmpukār are seen in the water.

Recently, the researchers of Bharatidasan University’s Department of Remote sensing carried out studies which found out a sunken town at a depth of 50-100 metres, about 30-40 km off the coast of the present-day Pūmpukār. In the report that appeared in The Hindu dated 20^th January 2023 stated,

“The studies carried out using GEBCO data showed a series of three deltas of the Cauvery, which run up to 40 km in the sea. The MBES data led to the discovery of a major coastal land system with sand banks, backwaters, beach ridges, rivers, estuaries and ancient shorelines. “We also inferred a scientifically designed harbour, about 11 km long and 2.5 km wide, running from north to south, with a number of canals meant for movement of big vessels and turning them. In between, there are broad plateaus which could have been used for loading, unloading and storing of merchandise.”

To the east of the harbour were 70-80 docks in north-south direction for a distance of 30 km for berthing ships. To the north were settlements with clusters of houses covering an area of about four square kilometres. Further up north were rowed settlements with compound walls. About 10 km away from the harbour on the north was a lighthouse, with a spiral staircase as evident from the pillar relics.

Several geological features such as deep river cut valleys of the Cauvery river system and submarine canyons were interpreted on the sea floor. They indicate that the Poompuhar region was prone to floods, tsunamis and accelerated impact of sea level rise and cyclone-induced surges. The port city had probably been relocated and rebuilt repeatedly owing to such natural occurrences. The seventh redevelopment was probably about 2,500 years ago and it might have submerged due to a rise in sea level about 1,020 years ago.”

(source: https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/ancient-port-city-of-poompuhar-traced-undersea-claim-researchers/article66413969.ece )

The vital hints for us are the presence of three delta-s of Kaviri under the water. Two of them have been accounted for in the Tamil texts, one in Karikāla-s time and another in Manimekalai’s time. The first one must have been more than 10,000 years ago as suggested by Graham Hancock. Pūmpukār was a safe city for a very long time. It is even mentioned in the very beginning of Silappadhikaram that people didn’t move out of the city. (Ch- 1 - line 15)

பதியெழு வறியாப் பழங்குடி

The ancient people of this city were never known to have moved out of this city. The commentator attributes this to the prosperity of the city and absence of threat from enemies.   The seventh redevelopment mentioned by the researchers captures our interest because that could probably be the development done after the loss of Pūmpukār during Karikāla’s time. It was dated 2500 years ago, which we will take up for analysis after finishing this section.

There are two strong evidences for the loss of Pūmpukār and some other coastal regions. One of them can be quoted from Pattinap Pālai sung in praise of Karikāl Chola.

Temple mentioned in Pattinap Pālai exists now.

Pattinap Pālai talks about a temple where Magha festival was observed on the day Full moon joined Magha star. Next to this temple (Kottam), two ponds were present – one for gratification of wishes of this birth and another for gratification of wishes for the next birth. (lines 34 – 39)

மழை நீங்கிய மா விசும்பில்

மதி சேர்ந்த மக வெண் மீன்

உருகெழு திறல் உயர் கோட்டத்து,

முருகு அமர் பூ முரண் கிடக்கை

வரி அணி சுடர், வான் பொய்கை,

இரு காமத்து இணை ஏரி.

In Silappadhikaram, a temple near the estuary of Kaviri is mentioned along with two ponds whose names appear as ‘Soma Kund’ and ‘Surya Kund’. Devotees, after taking a dip in these ponds used to worship Kama Deva in his temple to lead a happy life with the husband, says Silappadhikaram (Ch 9- lines 57-61)

கடலொடு காவிரிசென்றலைக்கு முன்றில்

மடலவிழ் நெய்தலங் கானல் தடமுள

சோம குண்டஞ் சூரிய குண்டந் துறை மூழ்கிக்

காமவேள் கோட்டந் தொழுதார் கணவரோடு

தாம் இன்புறுவர்.

This was told by a woman by name Devanthi to Kannagi on hearing about her travails with her husband who left her and then returned empty handed. Kannagi replied that she was not used to doing such austerities. This verse indicates that there was a temple for Kāma Deva in that location.  

This resembles the verse of Āndāḷ (Tiruppāvai- verse 22),

அங்கண் மாஞாலத்து அரசர், அபிமான

பங்கமாய் வந்து நின் பள்ளிக் கட்டிற் கீழே,

சங்கம் இருப்பாற் போல் வந்து தலைப் பெய்தோம்….

திங்களும் ஆதித்தியனும் வந்து எழுந்தாற்போல்

The estuary of Kaviri is also known as Sangam. The verse talks about kings who used to wait under the bed of Vishnu. It also talks about the rising of the moon and the sun as a metaphor. The same temple mentioned in Pattinap Pālai on the coast near Pūmpukār where the river Kaviri joins the sea, and where Maasi Magha festival was observed (Mahāmaham), seemed to be that of Vishnu in reclining posture on the snake bed. This is known from the 10th chapter of Silappadhikaram, which states that Kovalan and Kannagi went round a Vishnu temple after coming  out of the entrance of Pūmpukār (lines 8-10).

நீணொடு வாயில் நெடுங்கடை கழிந்தாங்கு

அணிகிளர் அரவின் அறிதுயில் அமர்ந்த

மணிவண்ணன் கோட்டம் வலம் செயாக் கழிந்து

It is not known whether the Kāma temple was present at that time, but if a Kāma temple existed, there is a greater possibility of another temple dedicated to his brother, Sāman! Sāman is the other name for Budha, i.e., Mercury. Both Kāman and Sāman were the sons of Vishnu. A Sangam verse mentioning them exits in Paripādal (1-28)

இருவர் தாதை இலங்கு பூண் மால்

(இருவர் – காமன் – சாமன் (புதன்))

Today the temple of Mercury exists but the temple for Kāma Deva is not found. In fact going by a kind of literature called ‘Piḷḷai Thamizh’ (பிள்ளைத் தமிழ்) on the stages of growth of a girl child till adolescence, worship of Kāma Deva was the final stage for girls before they got married. This indicates the prevalence of many temples for Kāma Deva in olden days. Āndāḷ worshiped Kāma Deva.

Today a temple of Budha exists near Pūmpukār, but instead of Vishnu, the main deity is Shiva. The place is known as Tiruvenkādu (திருவெண்காடு) – which can be interpreted to mean Vella-k- kādu (வெள்ளக் காடு flooded area) or Ven kādu (வெண் காடு)– white forest. The main deity is Shiva known as Swetaranyesvara – (the lord of the white forest). There was an image of Vishnu in reclining posture known as Sweta Narayana on top of a Mantapa when I visited this temple 20 years ago. It is not known if it still exists. The towers of some of the shrines within the temple have images of Vishnu indicating that this temple was the “Manivannan Kottam” (Krishna temple) of Silappadhikaram times.

Looking at its location, we can say that this was the Magha Kottam of Pattinap Pālai of Karikāla times which seemed to have been devastated by a flood that killed Karikāla’s son-in-law. After the construction of the Kallaṇai and due to un-explored reasons of the shift in Kaviri’s course, there is no evidence of a waterway near this temple. A shrine for Mercury is inside this temple which had existed right from Sangam age and even before Karikāla’s time, but the shrine for Kāma Deva which must have existed inside the temple or near the temple must have been destroyed. The fact that not even a single temple or shrine of Kāma Deva exists in Tamilnadu which glorified the worship of Kāma Deva by pre-adolescent girls goes to prove wanton destruction of these temple after the 1^st century CE.

The two ponds are nowhere to be seen today. Either they were closed by those opposed to Vedic religion because these ponds signified wish fulfilment for this birth and next birth. The ponds existed in Silappadhikaram times too. Therefore, there is no way to believe that they were lost naturally. The following map shows the location of Tiruvenkādu which is six kilometres from Pūmpukār.

Location of Tiruvenkādu 

Another evidence for the geographical changes in the region where Kaviri had flown comes from a surprising observation in Kulasekara Alwār’s Tirukkannapuram verse. He says in Perumāl Tirumozhi 8-10,

காவிரி நன்னதி பாயும் கணபுரத்தென் கருமணியே.

He says that the river Kaviri was flowing in Tirukkannapuram. Today it is not so. The map is produced below.

Location of Tirukkannapuram where Kaviri once flowed

The river flows to the south of it, not across it, though a water way is seen at a distance on th east. During Varāhamihira’s time (around 1500 years ago), Kaviri had several branches entering the sea. In one of the verses in Brihat Samhita, he refers to Kaviri in plural form as ‘Kāveryāh’ (14-13). This justifies the presence of Kaviri running closer to Tiruvenkādu and Tirukkannapuram in the past but lost in course of time. A major topographical change could have happened in Karikāla’s time when Pūmpukār sank. The transformation of the temple of Vishnu into that of Shiva seemed to have happened after Silappadhikaram time.

(to be continued) 

Kallaṇai was built by Karikāl Chola after a personal tragedy of loss of his son-in-law

 Part 1 : Karikal Chola who built Kallanai (Grand Anicut) was a contemporary of Adi Shankara

Part 2: History of Karikāl Chola and Iḷam Thirayan and the route to Kanchi gleaned from Sangam texts

Part 3: Karikāl Chola's conquest of Kanchi and the expedition to the Himalayas

Karikāla suffered a personal tragedy by the loss of his son-in-law.

Other than the northern expedition, the next achievement of Karikāla was the construction of embankment across the River Kaviri. Critics question this view due to absence of any reference to this in any of the Sangam texts in praise of Karikāla. The answer probably lies in the fact that it was built much later in his life – long after those verses were composed. It seems the idea of constructing the dam that stands till today arose from a personal tragedy he suffered.

Every year the river Kaviri brings copious flows in the beginning of the season. Everyone including Karikāl Chola used to visit a place called ‘Kazhār’ (கழாஅர்) to witness the flow and play in the waters. Karikāla used to take pride on the prosperity bestowed by the overflowing Kaviri. On one occasion, he was in Kazhār with his family, watching the elephants splash and play in water (Agananuru – 376). At that time his daughter Ādhimandhi (ஆதிமந்தி) and son-in-law, Āttanatthi (ஆட்டனத்தி) of Chera origin were playing in the river water. Āttanatthi, known by his very name for dancing, started dancing in the river water. While everyone was enjoying his dance a sudden flow in the river swept him in its way and he was lost. Ādhimandhi kept running along the river-flow to find him out. Finally, he was found near the estuary brought forth as dead by the sea waves (Agananuru- 222). This story is told in several verses of Agananuru and narrated by Kannagi while recalling the Patni women of Pūmpukār.

This incident must have shocked Karikāla very much. Around the same time, the flash floods seemed to have inundated some of the coastal towns including Pūmpukār. There is also a likelihood of the loss of a considerable part of Pūmpukār around this time. The curse on Nedumudi Kiḷḷi of a flood in Pūmpukār by the deity for neglecting Indra Festival, might have occurred at that time. Let me produce the evidence for the flood after giving the evidence for the building of the Grand Anicut (Kallaṇai) by Karikāl Chola.

Karikāla built Kallaṇai.

None of the Sangam Age texts on Karikāla speak about this dam as the work of Karikāla. The reason could be that it was probably the last deed done by him, much later in his life. There is also a likelihood of the dam project not completed in his lifetime. The personal tragedy and the havoc created by the flood across the land leading to the loss of Pūmpukār was so huge that it was not the time for composing verses. Generally, most of the Sangam verses were about the victories in wars with not much reference to the losses suffered. However, crediting Karikāla for the Kallaṇai appears in the latter-day texts and inscriptions including those of the Telugu Chola-s. Even the Tiruvālangādu copper plate inscriptions state that Karikāla built a dam across Kaviri to establish his fame. This was told after mentioning his work of re-modeling Kanchi. 

Karikāla “established his glorious fame by constructing embankments of the Kaveri” (verse 42)

It is stated in the Laden Plates, “King Karikāla, (the god of) Death to his enemies, was born in that family. This (king) constructed embankments to the Kaveri (river)” (Verse 11)

The Mālepādu plates of Punyakumāra (Renati Chola-s of Cudappah region) are quoted by K.A. Nilakanta sastri to say that Karikaal Chola “was the worker of many wonders like that of controlling the daughter of Kavera, overflowing her banks.” (“Studies in Cola history and Administration”, p. 27)

Vīrarājendra in his Kanyākumari inscriptions has devoted two verses on Karikāl Chola of which the second was on the dam built by him across the river Kaviri. Let me reproduce both the verses to show the important place he enjoyed among the Chola king for extraordinary things he had done.

“There was a Chola king in this race, named Karikāla who was equal (in firmness) to the Kulaparvatas; whose excessive fame which greatly spread (in all directions), resembled the (flowers) of the reed (kasha); who was (as it were) the forehead mark of kings; and who was death to rival monarchs preparing for expeditions (against him). (verse 48)

He (i.e., Karikāla) who was as bright as the sun and who curbed the pride of the insubordinates, prevented the Kaveri – which by its excessive floods, caused the earth to be deprived of its produce – by means of a bund formed of earth thrown in baskets, carried in hand by (enemy) kings.” (Verse 49)

This verse implies that he built the dam after conquering many kings who were made to work on the dam project. Te building of the dam is mentioned in Shankara Cholan Ula, written in praise of the younger brother of Kulottunga -III and Kaliṅgatthu Bharani.

எண்கரை செய்யா தெறிதிரைக் காவிரிக்குத்

தண்கரை செய்த தராபதியும் (verse 13, Shankara Cholan Ula)

Shankara Cholan Ula also makes a mention of the gift of sixteen hundred thousand gold for singing Pattinap Pālai in Karikāla’s name.   

Kaliṅgatthu Bharani (composed in praise of Kulottunga- I) makes a specific reference to Trilochana Pallava by his name Mukhari that he refused to oblige the orders of Karikāla to work for the dam and hence was punished. Several accounts on Trilochana Pallava existing in Andhra also talk about the refusal of Trilochana to work for building the dam across Kaviri and how he was punished for that. Karikāl Chola sent word to all the kings he defeated asking them to take part in the making of the embankment across the river Kaviri. He made the kings carry baskets of mud for the work. But Trilochana Pallava refused to oblige and sent back the emissaries of Karikāla.

This angered Karikāla who asked his men to draw the image of Trilochana with his third eye on the sands of Kaviri. Being an ardent Shiva-devotee, Karikāla went to the Shiva temple to take permission of the God to do what he intended. He then destroyed the third eye in the image by rubbing it off. On hearing about this, Trilochana’s pride got hurt and he sought pardon from Karikāl Chola following which he took part in creating the dam.

Kaliṅgatthu Bharani describes this incident in verse 197.

தொழுது மன்னரே கரைசெய் பொன்னியில்

தொடர வந்திலா முகரி யைப்படத்து

எழுது கென்றுகண் டிதுமி கைக்கணென்று

 இங்க ழிக்கவே அங்க ழிந்ததும்.

Kulottunga Cholan Ula repeats the same by stating that the eye of the one who refused to carry sand for building the dam across Ponni River (Kaviri) was plucked by Senni Karikāla (lines – 34-36)

தலை ஏறு

மண்கொண்ட பொன்னிக் கரைகட்ட வாராதான்

கண்கொண்ட சென்னி கரிகாலன் 

The surrender of Trilochana Pallava at the feet of Karikāla, offering to work for making the dam is reiterated by almost all the Telugu Chola inscriptions. These inscriptions invariably begin with the introduction of Karikāla and the dam he built.

“Charana siroruha vihita Vilochana Trilochana pramukhākhila pridhvishvara kārita kāveritīrta Karikāla kula ratna Pradīpa..”

It means, “the jeweled lamp (that illumines) the family of Karikāla meditating on whose lotus feet Trilochana and other kings constructed the embankments of the Kaveri” (p. 24, “Trilochana Pallava and Karikāl Chola)

Tikkana, the poet who was also the Prime Minister of the Andhra Cholda king, Manuma Siddhi of Nellore has written in his work Nirvachana Uttara Ramayana,

“Is the king Karikāla who bathed in the waters of the Ganges passed on to him in pails from the hands of the subordinate kings; who with ease deprived the Pallava king of his eye in the forehead; who built the embankments of the Kaveri; and who conquered all the kings of the earth, is he an ordinary king?”

The location of Kallaṇai in a place called Arasan Kudi today, should have been Kazhār of his time where his son-in-law Āttanatthi was washed away while dancing. Arasan Kudi means the place or residence of the king. For ages, the Chola kings must have visited that place to watch the early flow of Kaviri when freshwater surged in the river. There must have been a residential palace in Kazhār which in course of time had gained the name, Arasan Kudi. The location of Kallaṇai is shown in the map.

Location of Kallaṇai

As per current knowledge of the Kallaṇai, it was remodeled by the British in the 19^th century who felt that water was allowed into Koḷḷidam river to go wasted into the sea. This was arrested by modifying the Kallaṇai. This gives a vital input on what Karikāla originally built. At present, the dam stops the water in both Koḷḷidam and Kaviri which can be understood by looking at the dam.

                              Kallaṇai (The Grand Anicut) across Koḷḷidam and Kaviri

The dam cuts across both rivers now. Karikāla must have built the dam only across Kaviri and allowed water to take a different path. The excess water that drains through another channel got the name Koḷḷidam (that which takes up – கொள்ளுதல்) and joined the sea north of Pūmpukār!  Even today, during monsoon flows, Koḷḷidam carries heavy load of water. The following map shows how the Kaviri reaches Pūmpukār directly. Koḷḷidam river can be seen branching out from the Kallaṇai towards north and enter the sea away from Pūmpukār.

                                               Course of River Kaviri from Kallanai

Imagine no Kallaṇai in its current location. Kaviri would have been uncontrollable at this point and would have caused havoc throughout her course towards Pūmpukār. The British must have extended the dam across Koḷḷidam to divert water for the benefit of more regions. The probable absence of that part of the dam in Karikāla’s time indicates that Thanjavur to the southeast of Kaviri was the major agricultural or habitational area in Karikāla-s time while most of the regions north of Koḷḷidam was forested.

(to be continued)