The Chola dynasty’s legacy was commemorated in July 2025 through the Aadi Thiruvathirai Festival at Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple in Tamil Nadu, highlighting Rajendra Chola I’s historic conquests in Southeast Asia. Prime Minister Narendra Modi attended the event, releasing a commemorative Rs 1000 coin to honour the emperor’s maritime achievements. This grand celebration sparked renewed interest in Chola history and their pioneering contributions to naval supremacy, showcasing their maritime prowess long before Western countries established their own naval dominance.
The Origins of the Cholas
The Chola dynasty’s history can be broadly categorized into two distinct periods: the ancient Cholas, known through Sangam literature, and the medieval Cholas, who rose to prominence with Vijayalaya Chola in the 9th century. Inscriptions, such as the Tiruvalangadu copper plates, provide valuable insights into the Chola lineage.
According to these plates, Rajendra Chola traces his ancestry to Cholavarman, said to be born to Bharata, son of Dushyanta. A close examination of these origin stories and lineages mentioned in the Vishnu Purana suggests that the Cholas may have indeed descended from Bharata, sharing a common ancestor with Sibi and Rama, potentially dating back around 7,000 years.
Locational Advantage in Seafaring
The Cholas’ marine supremacy likely began with the first Chola who settled in Poompuhar. Pattinap Palai, the Tamil Sangam text mentions trade with Elam (Sri Lanka) and Kadaram. A notable verse from Purananuru (66) highlights Karikal Chola’s mastery of navigation, leveraging wind currents to his advantage. The Cholas’ strategic location along the Coromandel Coast facilitated their dominance over key Indian Ocean trade routes, setting the stage for their later maritime achievements.
Naval Expeditions
While early Cholas like Manu Neeti Chola were said to have crossed the sea for military expeditions to Ceylon (modern day Sri Lanka), it was Rajaraja Chola I who achieved substantial success in naval warfare, conquering Ceylon. However, his son Rajendra Chola I took the Chola Empire’s naval power to new heights by crossing the Bay of Bengal to reach the Malay Peninsula, scoring a victory in his 14th regnal year and bringing Kadaram (modern-day Kedah) under his control.
The Tanjore inscription, found in the Brihadeeswara temple and inscribed in Rajendra Chola’s 19th regnal year, provides a detailed account of his conquests in Southeast Asia in a particular order, perhaps indicating the route of his movement into the region. According to the inscription, Rajendra Chola defeated Sangrama Vijayotthunga, the king of Kadaram, and captured his wealth, including the “Vidyadhara Torana” and a gem-studded double door. This shows that he entered through the Malacca Strait.
The inscription reveals subsequent targets in Sumatra, detailing Rajendra Chola’s campaign: he first attacked Srivijaya (likely Palembang, the capital city), then proceeded northward to capture Pannai and Malaiyur. His conquests extended to the Malay Peninsula, encompassing territories such as Maayirudinga, Langasoha, Pappaalam, Limbika, Valaipandhoor, Takkola, and Mathamaalinga. Additionally, he seized Lamuri in northern Sumatra and Nakkavaram (Nicobar). Notably, Rajendra Chola achieved these victories in a single expedition, demonstrating his remarkable military prowess and strategic brilliance.
Causes for the military attack
Rajendra Chola’s attack on Srivijaya was a lightning strike that left a lasting impact, crippling the kingdom for centuries. This attack is intriguing, given the long-standing trade connections between the Cholas and Srivijaya, dating back to the 2nd century CE. During Rajaraja Chola I’s reign, the Sailendra dynasty ruler of Srivijaya built the Chudamani Vihara, a Buddhist monastery, in Nagappatinam with Rajaraja’s support. However, within years, Rajendra Chola launched a surprise attack on Srivijaya.
Recent research by Tansen Sen, Associate Professor of Asian History and Religions at the City University of New York, sheds new light on the strained relations between the Cholas and Srivijaya. According to Sen’s analysis of Chinese chronicles, geopolitics coupled with trade interests appear to have played a role in triggering hostilities.
The Srivijaya kingdom’s strategic location controlled the Malacca Strait between the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra, as well as the Sunda Strait between Sumatra and Java, making it a crucial hub for maritime trade, particularly with China during the Song dynasty. The Chola kingdom’s trade guilds, including the Ainnururvar, Manimangalam, and Ayyavole, sought to expand their trade opportunities in China. However, according to Chinese chronicles cited by Tansen Sen, the Song Court denied them trading rights, citing that the Chola kingdom was “subject to Srivijaya.” (Tansen Sen, “Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations,” (2003), p. 224).
This denial of trading rights likely occurred towards the end of Rajaraja Chola’s reign and was reported to Rajendra Chola, who saw it as a challenge to Chola power. It appears that Srivijaya’s establishment of the Buddhist Vihara in Nagappatinam might have created a false impression of Chola subservience, leading the Song rulers to deny trading rights to Chola merchants. It is also opined that Srivijaya deliberately created an impression of supremacy over the Cholas which led to severe backlash by Rajendra Chola.
Rajendra Chola’s diplomatic relations with the Khmer Empire (Kamboja) played a strategic role in his naval expedition to Srivijaya. It is believed that Rajendra Chola timed his attack on Srivijaya to coincide with the Khmer Empire’s assault on Tambralinga (southern Thailand), a region aligned with Srivijaya.
Rajendra I’s grandson, born to Rajendra II, seemed to have played a crucial role in the naval expedition, as known from the title given to him as “Kadaram Kondan” (one who conquered Kadaram). However, challenges persisted, and Rajendra I’s son Veera Rajendra had to intervene with a naval force to Kadaram during his reign. However, during Kulottunga’s reign, emissaries from Kadaram visited, seeking aid thereby reflecting subsidiary status of Kadaram under the Cholas.
Similar to the Telugu Cholas in Andhra Pradesh, who claimed ancestry from Karikal Chola, there seemed to have existed Malay Cholas tracing their origin to Rajendra Chola’s lineage. Malay chronicles mention kings with the name “Raja Chula,” lending credence to this theory. Further study of these chronicles may reveal more about the Chola Empire’s interactions with Southeast Asia.
Winning Maldives and Lanka
Rajendra Chola’s naval force extended his empire’s reach beyond South East Asia. He brought the Maldives archipelago under his control and exerted influence over Sri Lanka (Elam), capturing Polonnaruwa and constructing the “Vaanavan Madevi Eshwaram” temple, now known as ‘Shivale’, in memory of his mother, Vaanavan Madevi.
Parashurama’s crown
Another remarkable achievement was capturing the legendary crown crafted by Parashurama, a treasure from the Ramayana era. This crown was forged from the melted crowns of 21 defeated kings and stored on the island of “Sandima Dweepa”, one of 77 islands west of Tulu Nadu, according to the ...... Click here to read the rest of the article
