The Nyaya / Vaisheshika Darshanas (Guest post by R. Ramanathan)

The Nyaya & Vaisheshika darshanas are astika  darshanas (That agree with Vedic authority) that used “Realism” to explain worldly phenomenon and also provided solution as to how does one attain Moksha (known as Apavarga) from worldly life. Other darshanas like Sankhya Yoga etc used “idealism” to explain worldly phenomenon.  Sage Gautama wrote the Nyaya sutras on which the Nyaya darshana or what is called as “Prachina Nyaya” or “Ancient Nyaya”, was formalized. The Vaisheshika darshana was established on the Vaisheshika sutras were written by Sage Kaanatha.

Nyaya darshana 

This is more concerned with epistemological analysis (Sources of right knowledge), or “Pramana Shashtra”. There are 4 pramanas or valid sources of knowledge as per Nyaya

1.     Pratyaksha (Direct perception)

2.     Anumana inference

3.     Upamana(Comparision)

4.     Oral testimony (Shruti or statements of trustworthy people)

Moksha according Nyaya was attained via correct knowledge and removal of delusion. This resulted in acquiring the correct knowledge of the “Atman “or self.  Gautama also in the Nyaya sutras recommends Yogic practices to attain self-knowledge or Atma saakshatkaara (Nyaya sutras 4.2.46). Nyaya does not accept of the existence of a bliss in Moksha. Naiyayikas accept god and have tried to use logic to prove the existence of god.

The main contribution of Nyaya is the 5-part Syllogism called “Pancha Avayava Nyaya”. They are,

1.     The Pratijna (Proposition) Nyaya Sutr. 1.1.33

2.     The Hetu (Reason or middle term) Nyaya Sutr. 1.1.34 and 35

3.     Udaharanam (Example) Nyaya Sutr. 1.1.36 and 37

4.     Upanayah (Application) Nyaya Sutr. 1.1.38

5.     Nigamanam (Conclusion) Nyaya Sutr. 1.1.39

We will see this in detail in the subsequent article.

 Vaisheshika darshana 

This deals more with the physical world and can be called “Pada Shastra” or the science of categories.  The Vaisheshika school postulates one of the most ancient “Atomic theory”. This school accepts that matter especially, the first 4 pancha bhootas, air, fire, water and earth are composed of atoms. The smallest indivisible atom being called a paramaanu which is eternal. This paramaanu combines to form “Dvyanu” or a diad of atoms, “Tryanu” or triad and so on. Also, it deals with many physical phenomena like the absorption of water in the stem of a plant and so on. Vaisheshika accepts only 2 pramanas

1.     Pratyaksha (Direct perception)

2.     Anumana(Inference)

Vaisheshika too accepts and Ishvara, who is the arranger of atoms (Note, not the creator of atoms). Moksha in Vaisheshika as per the Vaisheshika sutras is atma sakshakaara through correct knowledge and removal of delusion.  The difference between Moksha in Nyaya and Vaisheshika’s is that Vaisheshikas accept an experience “Bliss” in Moksha

Similarities between Nyaya and Vaisheshika

1.     Both accept and logically prove god as creator of world

2.     Both accept Vedic authority but argue that the Veda is not eternal but have an author

3.     Both accept ignorance as cause of all suffering

4.     Both believe the individual self is eternal, pervasive and infinite

5.     Both believe in plurality of Jivatmas

6.     Both believe in moksha for the Atman

Differences between Nyaya and Vaisheshika

1.     Nyaya accepts 4 pramanas, Vaisheshika accepts 2 pramanas

2.     Nyaya deals with pramana shastra and logic. Vaisheshika with ontology or Padaarthas

Prachina Nyaya is very abstruse and difficult to understand an apply. Thus, In the 13^th century Gangesha in his work “Tathva Chintamani”, fused both Nyaaya and Vaisheshika to originate what was called “Navya Nyaya”. 

Later Raghunatha Shiromani, Gadhadhara Bhattacharya, Vasudeva Sarvabhauma etc all formalized this school. Navya Nyaya was really a versatile tool and it could be used to solve problems using inference and logic.  No wonder many other fields were affected by this. This approached spawned of a “Navya Vyaakarana” and a “Navya Mimamsa”.  This even spread to Kavya, alankara shastra etc.

The Dvaita vedanta school of Madhvacharya started adopting navya nyaya to formalize their schools. Vyasatheerta an acharya of the Madhva sampradaya, wrote Nayaymruta that condemned Advaita. It was almost shaken to its roots until Madhusudhana Saraswati of Bengal, using the same Navya Nyaya gave a rebuttal to the Nayamrutaa, with his work “Advaitasiddhi”.

So, for the purpose of this article we will be discussing Navya Nyaya only as the praachina Nyaya sutras and Vaisheshika sutras are too abstruse and complex to understand now.

Annam Bhatta around the 17^th century composed a work called “Tarka Sangraha”, a very simple book based on Navya Nyaya, intended as per his Mangala shloka, “To teach Nyaya very comfortably to children”. “Tarka” is another synonym for Nyaya. Generally, the word means “Debate”, “logic”, “Inference” etc.  This is the book that is currently taught as a beginner’s text and so the concepts referenced in this article are from that book.

To be continued…

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