The book “Rāmānuja Itihāsa: Decoding the identity of Krimikaṇṭha Chola and the Muslim invader at Melukote” is set on a detective tone to resolve two historical mysteries in Rāmānuja’s life that have far reaching implications for our understanding of the history of the medieval Cholas and the unrecorded earliest incursion of Islamic iconoclasts into southern India in the 11th century CE after the death of Mahmud of Ghazni.
Spread out into 12 chapters, the substance of this book is being presented here chapter-wise. The book was released on Rāmānuja Jayanti, on 6th May, 2022 at Sriperumbudur, the birth place of Rāmānujācārya. The hardcopy of the book can be obtained from me by writing to jayasreebooks@gmail.com.
For Ebook links refer here: Jayasree Saranathan: Published my book “Rāmānuja Itihāsa: Decoding the identity of Krimikaṇṭha Chola and the Muslim invader at Melukote”
Chapter 1: Primary
and secondary sources of evidence on Rāmānuja’s history
The chapter begins with a brief comparison of the traditional Indian method with the more recent western method of historical research. The admissibility of the traditional hagiographies as primary or secondary sources of evidence for historical research is established by both the systems, with the Indian system offering greater scope for layers of scrutiny that are found missing in the modern method. Rāmānuja’s history being the basis of this book, four texts written by his contemporaries and two secondary texts are scrutinized for their appropriateness as evidences after resolving the controversies, particularly in the case of one, where opinions differed among Vaiṣṇavite scholars. The chapter also authenticates Rāmānuja’s birth date as CE 1017.
Chapter 2:
Persecution of Rāmānuja and others
This chapter is about the circumstances leading to Rāmānuja’s exit from the Chola country. While all the hagiographies of Rāmānuja state that his disciple impersonated him when summoned by the king, to protect Rāmānuja and facilitate his quick exit from the country, no historian is ready accept that Rāmānuja faced any threat, though they have no misgivings in blaming the riots for the death of the king, as a consequence of Rāmānuja’s exit. This chapter uncovers the defects in this version while narrating the sequence of events leading to the persecution of the disciple and the teacher of Rāmānuja who went to meet the king. The eyes of the two were plucked by the king’s order that caused the teacher, aged 105, lose his life. Not aware of these developments Rāmānuja left the country along with his disciples. The year of this event is established as CE 1078.
Chapter 3: From
Srirangam to Tonḍanūr
This
chapter traces Rāmānuja’s journey from Srirangam to Tonḍanūr (near Mysore) in
Karnataka. The first break-through in this research comes from an inscription
in a rocky cave called Pāndava Kallu near Nāgamaṅgala, where Rāmānuja meditated
for some time. This was supposed to be the place where Pāndava-s stayed during
their exile. From there Rāmānuja moved to Śāligrāma and then to Tonḍanūr where
he cured the daughter of the King, Viṣṇuvardhana and won the Jains in a debate
in the Manḍapa of the Narasimha temple. All the temples were in ruins and
without deities when Rāmānuja arrived at Tonḍanūr.
The controversies about whether he converted Jain Basadi-s to temples and Jains
to Vaiṣṇavism are resolved in this chapter.
Chapter 4: From Tonḍanūr
to Melukote
This
chapter covers the events at Tonḍanūr, prominent one being the construction of
a dam across a narrow gap between two hills to stop mountain currents. It resulted
in the formation of a tank, called Toṇṇūr Kere today. Six hundred years later,
the bund was destroyed by Tipu Sultan on coming to know that a Ghazi lying in a
tomb on the side of the tank was a follower of Mahmud of Ghazni and that his
martyrdom was made worthless by Rāmānuja by having successfully
got back the looted property (Deities of Melukote). Rāmānuja
was perhaps the one and only person in the entire history of struggle against
the invader-Muslims to have got back the looted treasure without any bloodshed.
Unable to bear that historical feat of that frail old ascetic, Tipu went about
destroying all monuments associated with Rāmānuja. The Toṇṇūr bund was broken causing instant floods
that wiped out considerable population of Tonḍanūr. The temple of Yoga Narasimha
where Rāmānuja used to spend most of his time was destroyed by Tipu where he installed
the tomb of the Ghazi. The loot at other
temples and the complete destruction of the Maṭha of Rāmānuja by Tipu seemed as
though Rāmānuja was posthumously persecuted. Getting back to the trail of
Rāmānuja, the chapter narrates the entry of Rāmānuja into the nearby hill of Melukote
in CE 1099 where he discovered the main mūrti of Tirunārāyaṇa buried near a
tank. Epigraphic evidence is produced to show that he brought the priest from
Srirangam with the help of Vikramāditya-VI, a friend of Viṣṇuvardhana’s
father, to conduct the worship for the deity.
Chapter 5: Muslim
invasion at Melukote
The
missing deities at Tonḍanūr and Melukote indicating pillage by the raiders,
this chapter traces their identity from the evidences gathered around the
‘fanatic follower’ buried at Tonḍanūr. Two of them who entered India along with
Syed Salar Masud, the nephew of Mahmud of Ghazni managed to cross Mālwa that
had a friendly treaty with Masud, and came along the west coast of Karnataka
and Konkan with a small army, plundering the temples on the way. The Persian
chronicle giving this information stops at Kannur in Karnataka as the
destination of the two and the death of Mir Bakhtiar in a fight with the local
army. The tomb of the follower of Mahmud found only at Tonḍanūr, the rest of
the story is gathered from the evidences at Tonḍanūr and Melukote. The
iconoclasts had turned to Tonḍanūr on their return journey. In the scuffle with
the locals, one of them, Mir Bakhtiar was killed. He was buried by his partner,
Sulutanu-e-Salateen who decamped with the spoils and reached Delhi. The complete
silence of the Hoysala history for 20 years corresponding to this time goes to
prove that they were the worst hit by this raid. The attack on Mālwa by the
Hoysaḷa-s after this period is understood to be a revenge on the Bhoja-s for
letting the ruthless attackers a safe passage. The route taken by the intruders
and the Hoysaḷa-s are illustrated to show that they are similar.
Chapter 6: Proof of
Delhi visit
This
chapter establishes the trip to Delhi by Rāmānuja to recover the looted deity.
With the old Hindu saint asking for just one mūrti, stolen by one among them in
the past, the custodian of the plundered wealth identified as Dillīṣa of
Turkish origin in the hagiographies, didn’t mind allowing him take it back. But
this mūrti happened to be the playmate of the daughter of this chief. She
followed Rāmānuja to get it back but fell dead after seeing the deity
consecrated in the temple. This chapter brings to the fore the numerous
evidences from folk songs and literary works on the veracity of this account
and the performance of marriage festival between this girl and the deity since
Rāmānuja’s time, that left an imprint in the marriage traditions of the nearby
villages. The downtrodden people who helped Rāmānuja on his return journey were
honored with titles and rights that continue even today, testifying Rāmānuja’s
Delhi visit.
Chapter 7: The
identity of Krimikaṇṭha Chola
With
Rāmānuja continuing his exile in Melukote and the persecutor king still in the
Chola throne, this chapter focuses on establishing the identity of this king.
It is proved that Kulottuṅga- I was not the persecutor. He had taken in charge
of the temple at Srirangam only after Rāmānuja left. Rāmānuja’s name missing
from the list of the Srikāryam of the temple produced by historians is shown as
counter proof of their claim. The literary evidences on the presence of a king
are discussed. That king was Adhirājendra, a direct heir to the throne. The
historical blunder of historians in assuming that this king died in CE 1070 that
led to the coronation of Kulottuṅga- I (not a direct heir) is disproved by an
inscription of Adhirājendra appearing in CE 1071. The elevation of Kulottuṅga-
I was in tune with the practice since the days of Rājarāja- I to have a
co-ruler. Kulottuṅga was a co-regent with his base at Kānci.
Chapter 8: The myth
of the death of Adhirājendra
This
chapter focuses on refuting the arguments of historians that Adhirājendra died
early and that he was a weak ruler. Inscriptions are listed to prove that
Adhirājendra was a powerful warrior who brought victories in Ceylon and Kadāram
(modern Kedah). He had his presence in Kālahasti too, that was the epicenter of
a feud between Vaiṣṇavas and the followers of Śiva to convert Lord Venkateśwara
of Tirupati into Skanda! Rāmānuja successfully thwarted that attempt. Only
after this incident, he was persecuted. The chapter continues to present
evidences to show that Kulottuṅga ruled from Kānci after the death of a Chola
king in a riot. This death is reported by Bilhana in Vikramānkadeva Carita on
the life of Vikramāditya-VI, and is given as evidence for the death of
Adhirājendra by historians. But this death happening in 1070 is no proof for
Adhirājendra’s death but the death of a co-regent, Rājamahendra, the brother of
Adhirājendra’s father. The lists of all the kings given in various inscriptions
of three kings before Adhirājendra are furnished to prove that Rājamahendra was
a co-regent who suddenly disappeared from history. The lists of kings found in
the Tamil literary works starting from Kulottuṅga I to three generations after
him are also shown to establish that Kulottuṅga I succeeded Rājamahendra as a
co-ruler from Kānci throne.
Chapter 9: Kulottuṅga-
I succeeded Rājamahendra at Kānci
This
chapter discusses the background of the riot at Kānci resulting in the death of
Rājamahendra in the riot. By this time (1070) all the heirs to the Chola throne
from the family of Rājendra- I were dead in different wars. The world knows
only one side of the story of the Chola-s of the 10th and 11th
century as successful in territorial expansion and overseas victories. But the
price they paid for this was heavy in terms of loss of all eligible heirs in
various wars. Only Rājamahendra and Adhirājendra survived, between whom the
former was killed in a sectarian riot at Kānci. Rājamahendra’s Vaiṣṇavite
leanings led to his death in the brewing clash between two sections identified
as ‘right-handed’(Valaṅgai) and ‘left-handed’(Idaṅgai) - where the right-handed
were Viṣṇu worshipers and the left-handed were heretics worshiping Śiva in
unorthodox ways. With Adhirājendra continuing in the main throne, Kulottuṅga,
the son of the daughter of the Chola family was sent as co-regent to Kānci at a
very sensitive time in history which mainstream historians failed to sense.
Chapter 10: Idaṅgai,
Kāpālika, Kālāmukha influence on persecution
This
chapter outlines the socio-political struggle between the two sects, Valaṅgai
and Idaṅgai since the time of Rājarāja- I, with each section trying to
influence the king. The origins of the two are traced from multitude of
evidences starting from Mahābhārata. Valaṅgai had 18 divisions corresponding to
18 groups of Yādava-s who accompanied Krishna from Mathura to Dwaraka. They
migrated to South India at the decline of the Harappan culture around 1500 BCE
and expectedly were devotees of Viṣṇu. They formed influential agricultural and
warrior class rising up in socio-political hierarchy from the time of Rājarāja-
I. The stone workers among them settled down in Kānci. There was a second wave
of migration around the beginning of the Common Era when 96 sects of heretics
from the Indus region were sent by the Śatakarṇi-s to the Chera land, i.e.,
Kerala. They grew into 98 sects and spread across many places of Tamilnadu and
Karnataka. They were predominantly traders and weavers. A substantial number of
them settled down at Kānci. Mutual enmity started growing between them and the
Valaṅgai wherever they co-existed. We find disparaging references to Idaṅgai sects in the commentaries of Ādi Śankara and Rāmānuja to Brahma Sutras. Rāmānuja naturalized them
into the main stream by making them shed unorthodox ways and follow Vaiṣṇavism.
This invited the ire of certain Idaṅgai sects who were influential with
Adhirājendra. Adhirājendra was initially neutral but perhaps on seeing the murder
of his uncle Rājamahendra, started siding with the Idaṅgai. In contrast,
Kulottunga who basically had Idaṅgai origins was neutral to both. Choice of
Kānci as his base was perhaps aimed at appeasing the Idaṅgai who had dominant
presence there. These intricacies are discussed in this chapter to bring forth
the background causes for persecution. The sectarian feud had continued in the
British period and exists in pockets even today though the origins are
forgotten.
Chapter 11: Date of
return of Rāmānuja
The chapter establishes the date of return of Rāmānuja to Srirangam in the year CE 1111. Since all the hagiographies state that Rāmānuja returned only after the death of the persecutor king, it is understood that Adhirājendra died in this year. The unique name, Krimikaṇṭha that he came to acquire is a reference to the disease he suffered, i.e., throat cancer. The first inscription of Kulottuṅga I from Gangaikonda Cholapuram appears only in this year which happened to be his 41st regnal year. Viṣṇuvardhana’s lone inscription appears at Srirangam only in this year indicating that his men had escorted Rāmānuja back to Srirangam. This is a rare inscription giving his regnal year (15th) by which we are able to construct his regency. Vikrama, the son of Kulottuṅga- I was recalled to Gangaikonda Cholapuram in the same year to take up co-regency. In the same year the king of Kannauj, a friend of Kulottuṅga- I visited Gangaikonda Cholapuram, presumably to grace the occasion of the crowning of Kulottuṅga- I.
Chapter 12: Removal
of Lord Govindarāja at Chidambaram
Back
to Srirangam Ramanuja went about introducing norms of temple worship in all the
Viṣṇu temples. When he was in Tirupati, Vikrama’s son Kulottuṅga- II who was
ruling from the Chola throne destroyed the shrine of Viṣṇu in the temple of
Natarāja at Chidambaram. Contemporary panegyrics are cited to prove that the Mūlavar
Mūrti of Viṣṇu was thrown into the sea by the king. The Idaṅgai roots of the
author of these eulogies authenticate the rise of Idaṅgai influence on Kulottuṅga-
II at that time. The chapter gives the background details of all these and also
the consecration of the processional Mūrti in Tirupati.
Epilogue: Curious
Continuities from Mahābhārata
Rāmānuja’s entire life was a series of struggles against heretics and the two powerful Chola kings, Adhirājendra and Kulottuṅga- II. History of the period between these two kings can be re-constructed ONLY from the traditional hagiographies of Rāmānuja using multiple cross references. This book exactly does that besides hinting at numerous connections between north and south India, unrecognized so far. The impressions gained from a field trip by the author to the places associated with Rāmānuja is compiled in this section to show the similarities in iconography and hydrological features between the Harappan regions including Dwārakā and Tonḍanūr, originally known as Yādavapura, the city of Yādava-s in Karnataka. This section is a starting point for further research in corroborating Pāndava connection to South India during their exile and the migration of the Yādava clan since then, that seemed to have accelerated at the decline of the Harappan regions 3500 years ago.
Appendix: Idaṅgai – Valaṅgai
A
brief note on the two sects is given. The clashes continue even today between
individual castes though the origins of this conflicting mentality traced to
Idaṅgai – Valaṅgai distinction is now forgotten. Unfortunately, it is
re-phrased as clashes between Caste Hindus and Dalits. A genuine and impartial
research into Idaṅgai – Valaṅgai enmity is needed to bring out all the details.
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The Mausoleum built by Tipu Sultan on the temple of Yoga Narasimha Swamy at Tonḍanūr, after destroying it
