Mankind’s date with Indian land mass!

 

The archeological study reports on the deposits at Jwalapuram in Andhra Pradesh had confirmed our earlier and persistent views that human settlement in South India had been there for ages and that this land was a huge one called as Kumari that stretched in between Indonesia, Africa and Australia. The sea in the east (Bay of Bengal) was not there and it was a continuation of the land mass. (It was later dug by the ancestors of Rama of Ikshvaku – explained in many posts in this blog based on narration in Valmiki Ramayana)  The soot from the volcano eruption in Indonesia that happened 78,000 years ago had settled everywhere in India and  Africa.

The similarity in the findings of the soot / tools / artifacts / skeletal remains in these regions  made the researchers think that man spread out from Africa to India.

But I do not think of a 'migration' kind. I wonder why there was a need for migration at a time when land forms were close or non-ripped. People existed in the vast land mass and had easily moved throughout. Here we should not think of the land mass of the present day. Today the Indian sub continent is moving northward at the rate of 9 metres per century. Just imagine where it would have been some 78,000 years ago.

At a time of 80k years ago the rate of movement must have been even more. At present, the movement is too restricted and slowed down due to the already – reached limits of pushing the Russian plate. This land mass south of the Himalayas which contained Kumari  must have been the jambhoo dweepa (naavalam theevu) , now known as a mythical Lemuria. From Sangam texts we know that India was spread far down the south.

 

Look at the name where the archeological finds have been found – Jwalapuram!

Is it not reminding of the jwala or flames of a volcano?

The remembrance of a volcanic eruption that happened

in the unified landmass of Jambhoodweepa perhaps found its way

in that place which bore the brunt of the eruption!

 

Look at the name of the river in this place, 'Jurreru'.

Does it not remind us of the Jumbhoo river of Jambhoo dweepa as told in olden texts?

The oldest race in Andaman also confirms that mankind in traceable time

had existed in this place called Jambhoo dweepa.

If so, the Africa centric evolution of man may have to be reviewed one day!

 

-         jayasree

 

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Mankind's continuing settlement in India ca. 80k years ago

 

 

http://sites.google.com/site/kalyan97/palaeolithic

http://sites.google.com/site/kalyan97/_/rsrc/1231633997451/palaeolithic/journeyfirstexit.bmp

 

Science 6 July 2007:
Vol. 317. no. 5834, pp. 114 - 116
DOI: 10.1126/science.1141564     

 Reports

Middle Paleolithic Assemblages from the Indian Subcontinent Before and After the Toba Super-Eruption

Michael Petraglia,^1,2* Ravi Korisettar,³ Nicole Boivin,¹ Christopher Clarkson,⁴ Peter Ditchfield,⁵ Sacha Jones,¹ Jinu Koshy,³ Marta Mirazón Lahr,¹ Clive Oppenheimer,⁶ David Pyle,⁷ Richard Roberts,⁸ Jean-Luc Schwenninger,⁵ Lee Arnold,⁸ Kevin White⁹

 

The Youngest Toba Tuff (YTT) eruption, which occurred in Indonesia 74,000 years ago, is one of Earth's largest known volcanic events. The effect of the YTT eruption on existing populations of humans, and accordingly on the course of human evolution, is debated. Here we associate the YTT with archaeological assemblages at Jwalapuram, in the Jurreru River valley of southern India. Broad continuity of Middle Paleolithic technology across the YTT event suggests that hominins persisted regionally across this major eruptive event.

 

The Youngest Toba Tuff (YTT) eruption of 74,000 years ago (74 ka) was Earth's largest volcanic event in the past two million years. It was two orders of magnitude larger (in erupted mass) than the largest known historic eruption, that of Tambora, also in Indonesia. The YTT involved the eruption of a minimum of 2800 km³ (7 x 10¹⁵ kg) of which at least 800 km³ was transported in atmospheric ash plumes that blanketed an area from the South China Sea to the Arabian Sea . Its impact on Earth's atmosphere and climate and on local animal and plant populations remains a matter of contention.

 

The Indian subcontinent contains extensive YTT deposits. Here we describe an archaeological sequence from south India that includes a substantial YTT layer and sheds light on the eruption's impact on climate, environments, and hominin populations. In the Kurnool District of Andhra Pradesh in southern India, stratified archaeological sites in the Jurreru River valley contain stone artifacts in association with faunal remains in caves, rockshelters, and open-air localities. The archaeological record spans all periods of the Paleolithic. In addition, current mining activities have exposed tephra deposits over an area of 64 ha. Ash is, however, certainly buried over a wider area within the valley (fig. S1), and we estimate its total volume at 7 ± 0.7 x 10⁵ m³, based on the interpolation of 225 depth observations made at mining exposures.

http://sites.google.com/site/kalyan97/_/rsrc/1231633609995/palaeolithic/jwalapuram1.gif             Fig. 1. Location of Jwalapuram, archaeological sites, and tephra deposits. (A) Location of the Jwalapuram study area. (B) Key archaeological localities in the Kurnool District include the Upper Paleolithic caves of Billasurgum (1) (17) and Muchchatla Chintamanu Gavi (2) (16). Jwalapuram localities include 17 (3, Middle Paleolithic), 9 (4, Microlithic), 3 (5, Middle Paleolithic), 20 (6, Middle Paleolithic), 21 (7, Middle Paleolithic), and Tank (8, Acheulean). [View Larger Version of this Image (21K GIF file)]

 

We conducted electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) of volcanic glass shards from the Jwalapuram tephra to compare their geochemical signatures with those of the Older Toba Tuff (OTT, dated to 840 ka) and the Middle Toba Tuff (MTT, dated to 500 ka) . The results show that the Jwalapuram ash is a distal deposit of the YTT (figs. S3 and S4), based on its close similarities with proximal deposits of YTT in Sumatra and with previously characterized distal occurrences in India.

 

Jwalapuram locality 3 preserves more than 7.5 m of sedimentary deposits, including a 2.55-m-thick deposit of ash, and a sequence of lithic artifacts that straddle the ash layer (fig. S2). Soft sediment deformation structures suggest that the tephra initially accumulated on a wet clay substrate, probably in a lacustrine environment. The abrupt transition from light gray ash to an orange (but still ash-rich) silt horizon immediately above the ash sequence represents a major change in depositional regime. We interpret this as evidence that the lake dried up soon after the ash fall, possibly during the onset of glacial conditions in oxygen isotope stage 4.

 

The stone tool assemblages were found in trenches placed across the landscape (that is, at Jwalapuram localities 3, 17, and 21). At Jwalapuram locality 3, we used optical dating to obtain burial ages for sediment samples from archaeological layers above (JLP-380) and below (JLP3A-200) the ash. Ages of 77 ± 6 and 74 ± 7 ka were obtained for the pre- and post-Toba samples, respectively (tables S2 and S3). These indicate that the dated quartz grains were last exposed to sunlight shortly before and after the Toba eruption, with no substantial hiatus in sediment deposition.

 

The pre-Toba archaeological layer at locality 3, chronologically bracketed by the 74,000-year-old YTT and the underlying sediments dated to 77 ± 6 ka, contained 215 artifacts as well as a piece of red ochre that shows striations due to use. This stone tool assemblage consists of faceted unidirectional cores made from limestone (60%), quartzite (22%), and chert (11%), with elongate parallel flake scars indicating the production of blades. Frequent preparation of flake platforms is seen, suggesting that these flakes were struck from prepared cores similar to those found at the site. A small proportion of flakes were retouched into notches, informal scrapers, retouched blades, and a burin . This pre-Toba assemblage falls within the Indian Middle Paleolithic.

http://sites.google.com/site/kalyan97/_/rsrc/1231633665451/palaeolithic/jwalapuram2.gif

Fig. 2. Selected Jwalapuram artifacts that pre-date (locality 3) and post-date (localities 3, 17, and 21) the YTT. Above the ash: 1, bladelet core with faceted platform; 2 and 3, flake cores with faceted platforms; 4, side scraper; 5, utilized flake; 6, atypical end scraper on blade; 7, side and end scraper; 8, utilized flake; 9, broken blade; 10, broken blade. Below the ash: 11, notch and burin; 12, ventrally retouched side scraper; 13, side scraper on broken blade; 14, side scraper on ridge straightening flake; 15, ventrally retouched side and end scraper; 16, ventrally retouched scraper; 17, notch; 18, ground ochre. Scale bar, 1 cm. [View Larger Version of this Image (58K GIF file)]

 

The post-Toba layer at locality 3, optically dated to 74 ± 7 ka, contains an assemblage of 108 stone artifacts that occur throughout the orange sandy stratum; a further 37 and 131 artifacts were recovered from the same matrix above the ash at localities 17 and 21, respectively. The technology and tool types at these three post-ash localities are similar to those found in the pre-ash assemblage, involving faceted unidirectional cores with some blade scars . However, raw materials were used in different frequencies (limestone 31%, chert 28%, chalcedony 23%, and quartzite 12%). Most flakes are short and squat, although a few blades and bladelets (<2 cm in length) are also present (<5%), along with a bladelike core and a small bidirectional blade core with a faceted platform . Retouched flakes above the ash include notches and side and end scrapers. Burins and bipolar reduction are also present, but rare. This combination of tool types is common in Late Pleistocene assemblages of India, usually identified as Middle Paleolithic .

We provide here firm chronological evidence that hominins were present in the Jurreru River valley, south India, immediately before and after the YTT eruption. Analyses of the archaeological industries recovered from the site indicate a strong element of technological continuity between the pre- and post-Toba assemblages. Together with the presence of faceted unidirectional and bidirectional bladelike core technology, these pre- and post-Toba industries suggest closer affinities to African Middle Stone Age traditions (such as Howieson's Poort) than to contemporaneous Eurasian Middle Paleolithic ones that are typically based on discoidal and Levallois techniques.

The coincidence of (i) evidence of hominins flexible enough to exhibit continuity through a major eruptive event, (ii) technology more similar to the Middle Stone Age than the Middle Paleolithic, and (iii) overlap of the Jwalapuram artifact ages with the earlier end of the most commonly cited genetic coalescence dates  may suggest the presence of modern humans in India at the time of the YTT event. This interpretation would be consistent with a southern route of dispersal of modern humans from the Horn of Africa ; the latter, however, will remain speculative until other Middle Paleolithic sites in the Indian subcontinent and Arabian Peninsula are excavated and dated.

http://sites.google.com/site/kalyan97/_/rsrc/1231633701284/palaeolithic/jwalapuram3.gif

Fig. 3. Discriminant analysis of 670 cores from Middle Stone Age (MSA), Middle Paleolithic (MP), and early Upper Paleolithic (UP) contexts in Africa, the Levant, and India. Functions 1 and 2 account for 70.1% of the variation. Functions 1 to 3 are all significant at the P = < 0.0005 level. JWP, Jwalapuram; KRM, Klasies River Mouth. [View Larger Version of this Image (30K GIF file)]

 

References and Notes

• 1. B. G. Mason, D. M. Pyle, C. Oppenheimer, Bull. Volcanol. 66, 735 (2004). [CrossRef]
• 2. W. I. Rose, C. A. Chesner, Geology 15, 913 (1987).[Abstract]
• 3. W. I. Rose, C. A. Chesner, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 89, 269 (1990). [CrossRef]
• 4. C. A. Chesner, W. I. Rose, A. Deino, R. Drake, J. A. Westgate, Geology 19, 200 (1991).[Abstract/Free Full Text]
• 5. M. R. Rampino, S. Self, Nature 359, 50 (1992). [CrossRef]
• 6. G. J. Jones, J. M. Gregory, P. A. Stott, S. F. B. Tett, R. B. Thorpe, Clim. Dyn. 25, 725 (2005). [CrossRef]
• 7. M. R. Rampino, S. Self, Quat. Res. 40, 269 (1993). [CrossRef]
• 8. M. R. Rampino, S. Self, Science 262, 1955 (1993).[Free Full Text]
• 9. C. Oppenheimer, Quat. Sci. Rev. 21, 1593 (2002). [CrossRef]
• 10. F. Gathorne-Hardy, W. Harcourt-Smith, J. Hum. Evol. 45, 227 (2003). [CrossRef] [ISI] [Medline]
• 11. S. H. Ambrose, J. Hum. Evol. 45, 231 (2003). [CrossRef] [ISI] [Medline]
• 12. S. H. Ambrose, J. Hum. Evol. 34, 623 (1998). [CrossRef] [ISI] [Medline]
• 13. S. K. Acharyya, P. K. Basu, Quat. Res. 40, 10 (1993). [CrossRef]
• 14. J. A. Westgate et al., Quat. Res. 50, 107 (1998). [CrossRef]
• 15. S. C. Jones, in The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia, M. D. Petraglia, B. Allchin, Eds. (Springer, Netherlands, 2007), pp. 173–200.
• 16. M. L. K. Murty, Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. 118, 196 (1974). [ISI]
• 17. K. Thimma Reddy, Asian Perspect. 20, 206 (1977).
• 18. P. Shane, J. Westgate, M. Williams, R. Korisettar, Quat. Res. 44, 200 (1995). [CrossRef]
• 19. V. N. Misra, Man Environ. XIV, 1764 (1989).
• 20. H. V. A. James, M. D. Petraglia, Curr. Anthropol. 46, S3 (2005). [CrossRef]
• 21. V. Macaulay et al., Science 305, 1034 (2004).
• 22. M. Metspalu et al., BMC Genet. 5, 26 (2004). [CrossRef] [Medline]
• 23. T. Kivisild et al., Am. J. Hum. Genet. 72, 313 (2003). [CrossRef] [ISI] [Medline]
• 24. M. M. Lahr, R. Foley, Evol. Anthropol. 3, 48 (1994). [CrossRef]
• 25. M. D. Petraglia, A. Alsharekh, Antiquity 77, 671 (2003). [ISI]
• 26. This project was funded by the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) (Environmental Factors in the Chronology of Human Evolution and Dispersal program), the Leakey Foundation, the NERC Arts and Humanities Research Council Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Dating Service, the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, the Australian Research Council, and Queens' College (Cambridge). We thank the Archaeological Survey of India for permission to conduct the field work and the other participants in the project for their contributions to the excavations and artifact cataloguing. We thank C. Chesner for providing tephra samples; C. Hayward for technical support on the electron microprobe; and R. Foley, Z. Jacobs, T. Kivisild, and P. Mellars for useful discussions.

 http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/317/5834/114

 

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Modern humans reached India early

N. Gopal Raj (The Hindu, Date:09/07/2007 )

Evidence found in excavations by international team of scientists at Jwalapuram in Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh

THIRUVANANTHAPURAM: In the course of archaeological excavations at Jwalapuram in Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh, an international team of scientists has found evidence that anatomically modern humans are likely to have reached India before a massive volcanic eruption in what is today Indonesia occurred tens of thousands of years ago.

"Super-eruption"

The "super-eruption" of the Toba volcano in Sumatra some 74,000 years ago was the largest volcanic event to have occurred in the last two million years and the ash thrown up high into the atmosphere by that cataclysmic explosion reached India too, said Ravi Korisettar of the Department of History and Archaeology at Karnatak University in Dharwad, Karnataka.

During five years of excavations at Jwalapuram, Indian, British, and Australians scientists unearthed fine stone flakes that had been turned into tools for various purposes.

The stone tools were to be found in layers of earth above as well as below the fine ash from the Toba super-eruption, the scientists noted in a paper published in the latest issue of the journal Science.

"Volcanic winter"

It had been thought that the vast amounts of volcanic ash flung into the atmosphere by the eruption could have blocked sunlight and produced a "volcanic winter" that decimated the humans living then. But the evidence from the Jwalapuram excavations, however, suggests that the volcanic eruption did not have such a catastrophic impact on the early human population there.

Stone tools

The stone tools also pointed to a more exciting possibility. The stone tool assemblages found in Jwalapuram were "very similar to ones that we see produced in Africa at the same time," said Michael Petraglia of the Leverhulme Centre for Human Evolutionary Studies at the University of Cambridge in the U.K, the first author of the paper.

Those stone tools in Africa had been produced by modern humans.

"Closer affinities"

In the Science paper, the researchers noted that the techniques used for making the stone tools at Jwalapuram suggested "closer affinities" to African Middle Stone Ages traditions than to contemporaneous Eurasian ones. T his finding is significant because genetic studies of tell-tale patterns in the DNA of people living in various parts of the world have supported the view that all modern humans arose in Africa.

It is believed that these modern humans then migrated out of Africa and settled all across the globe.

"So what we are saying is that modern humans probably dispersed from Africa into India at a very early date, earlier than anyone has suggested before," Dr. Petraglia told this correspondent.

There is a hypothesis that modern humans could have taken the "southern route of dispersal," utilising the coastlines to travel from Africa, through Arabia, across the Indian subcontinent and then into South-East Asia and finally into Australia, he said. The presence of modern humans in India at the time of the Toba super-eruption would be consistent with humans having used the southern route, but would remain speculative till further excavations were carried out in the Indian subcontinent and Arabian peninsula, remarked the scientists in their journal paper.

Key role

India has a played a key role in the migration of modern humans out of Africa, says K. Thangaraj of the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology at Hyderabad. In a paper published in Science two years ago, Dr. Thangaraj and others held that genetic lineages to be found among Andaman islanders supported an out-of-Africa migration by modern humans some 50,0000 to 70,000 years ago.

Archaeological data

Dr. Korisettar is, however, sceptical about modern humans opting for a coastal route for their migration.

There was currently no archaeological evidence of such ancient human migrations along India's west coast and into southern Tamil Nadu. Rather, the available archaeological data favoured a continental route whereby early humans came through the Bolan and Khyber passes to the north-western parts of the Indian subcontinent and then into Rajasthan before dispersing to other parts of the country, he added.

http://www.thehindu.com/2007/07/09/stories/2007070955141300.htm

 

 

 

Related articles:-

 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/himalaya.html

 

http://jayasreesaranathan.blogspot.com/2008/11/genetic-study-supports-india-centric.html

 

The ‘caste’ shadow ‘cast’ in our country!

 

The caste system that is regarded as a blot on the Indian social set-up

was not at all there until the advent of the British.

There were only Varnas and Jathis.

The Varnas were four, based on temperament

The Jathis were two, based on 'Jaatha:' or birth as male and female.

But castes were an innovation of the British.

 

The English had castes based on professions.

People were known by their profession.

The surnames in England such as Taylor, Smith, Goldsmith, Baker, Butcher,

Barber, Mason, Carpenter, Turner, Waterman, Shepherd and Gardener

were all about the profession that were practiced generation after generation.

Following the traditional profession has been a practice everywhere including India.

The name of the Pakisthani terrorist arrested in Mumbai attacks

also is of that category – Kasab as his surname indicating the  profession of a butcher.

 

People of different professions filled the requirements of the entire society

in the spirit of division of labor.

As  a result, everyone was able to earn their living,

every one was needed by the others,

and specialization in their respective crafts also happened.

 

This kind of co-existence and income earning capacity and dignity of labour

had always been there in our country.

From  Purananuru we come to know how co-existence was there

with in a group of people who had specialized  in different avocations

for co-working towards  a singular goal.

The groups such as Parayan, Thudian, Kadamban and PaaNan

worked together on a symbiotic  basis for earning through singing.

Each one got their share for their work.

But today, parayan is a derogatory word.

The reason for bringing such a  pass lies in the loss of livelihood

with the advent of industrialization in the British period.

Until then the Paraynas had received their due shares from the Kings

whenever they all had performed together.

 

The evil done by the British was to anoint these avocation based livelihood as castes.

Those who could make living in the changed set-up of industrialization prospered.

Those who could not earn (the traditional earning sources also died

with the advent of the British) were looked down as inferior.

Thus began a state of conflicts and today's politicians have made most

out of these and are still bent on perpetuating the differences.

 

The following article by the Supreme Court judge Sri Markandey Katju

puts in perspective how the once non-existent caste differences came into place.

 Excerpts from Sri Katju's article is given here.

The complete article can be read at http://www.hindu.com/2009/01/09/stories/2009010953161000.htm

-jayasree

 

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Why the caste system is on its last legs

Markandey Katju

 

 

 

At the end of British rule, India, which was once one of the world's most prosperous countries, became one of the poorest. It was unable to feed itself. Its industrial development was stalled as the British policy was to not permit industrialisation (see Rajni Palme Dutt's India Today). Life expectancy was low and the literacy rate was very low. As Angus Madison, the Cambridge University historian, points out, India's share of world income fell from 22.6 per cent in 1700 to 3.8 per cent in 1952.

 

In the revenue records in many Indian States one often finds entries of this sort: 'A, son of B, caste lohar (smith), vocation agriculture,' or 'C, son of D, caste badhai (carpenter), vocation agriculture,' or 'E, son of F, caste kumhar (potter), vocation agriculture,' and so on. This indicates that their ancestors were in those professions, but later they became unemployed (although ostensibly they were shown as agriculturists). British mill industry had destroyed their handicraft.

 

In England and other European countries, too, handicrafts were destroyed by mill products, but the handicraftsmen got employment in the mills.

 

Handicraft industry & mill industry

Some people think that if the British had not come to India an indigenous mill industry would have developed in India, because the development of the handicraft industry leads to capital accumulation which is the prerequisite for industrialisation, and India would have become an industrial state by the 19th century, as in the case of countries of North America and Europe. But it is not necessary to dwell on this: there is no use crying over spilt milk.

 

In the feudal period there were no engineering colleges or technical institutes, and the only way to learn a craft was to sit with one's father from childhood and learn the craft by seeing how he worked, with some tips from him. Thus the father was not only doing the production work through his craft but also teaching his son the craft.

 

This was totally unlike modern times where the teacher in an engineering college or technical institute is not a producer engaged in some industry. In other words, in modern times the vocation of a teacher is separated from the vocation of a producer. There was no such separation in the feudal age.

 

In feudal times, one had no choice with respect to one's profession: you had to follow your father's profession. Thus, the son of a carpenter (badhai) became a carpenter, the son of a blacksmith (lohar) became a blacksmith, and so on. This way, carpenter, blacksmith, potter, all became castes. The same thing happened in Europe in feudal times.

 

Modern mill industry

 

In the modern industrial age the demand for skilled technical personnel is much more than in the feudal age, because the demand for goods is much more owing to increase in population and other factors. Hence the traditional feudal method of teaching a craft, in which only a handful of persons (usually the sons of handicraftsman) were taught, would no longer suffice for modern society. Now technical institutes or engineering colleges, where a large number of students are taught technical skills, have become necessary. Obviously all these students could not be sons of the teacher. This destroyed the very basis of the caste system in which one had no option in choosing one's vocation and had to follow one's father's profession. The caste system, in which one's vocation is chosen by one's birth, is thus totally outmoded in the modern age.

 

Today a boy of the badhai (carpenter) caste comes from a rural area to a city where he becomes an electrician or a motor mechanic or takes up some other vocation. If he gets some education he becomes a clerk or even a doctor, lawyer, engineer or teacher. He does not usually follow his father's profession. This has largely destroyed the basis of the caste system economically.

 

The caste system is now being artificially propped up socially by some vested interests, for example, vote bank politics. But when the basis of an institution has been destroyed (by the advance of technology) how long can that institution survive? To my mind, the caste system in India will not last for more than 10 or 20 years from now because its very basis has gone.

 

Was it bad for India?

 

Many people think the caste system did a lot of damage to India. This is undoubtedly true of modern times. But in the feudal age the system did good to India because it corresponded to the feudal occupational division of labour in society, as pointed out above, which resulted in the development of productive forces at that time.

 

It is a myth that today's Scheduled Castes were always treated with indignity. In fact, up to the coming of British rule the members of these castes were usually in some handicraft vocation and were earning their livelihood from that vocation. It was only when the British mill industry destroyed their handicraft and they became unemployed that they began to be treated with indignity. An unemployed man becomes a poor man, and a poor man is not given respect in society.

 

For instance, the chamars were at one time a respectable caste because they earned their livelihood by doing leather work. It was only when large companies destroyed their handicraft, and thereby their livelihood, that they sank in the social ladder, so much so that today to call a person a chamar is often regarded as an insult (see the judgment of the Supreme Court in Swaran Singh & Ors. vs. State through Standing Counsel & Anr. [2008(8) SCC 435, JT 2008(9) SC 60]).

 

Similarly, other castes whose handicraft occupations were destroyed by the British mill industry became unemployed and thereby fell in the social order.

 

Related articles :-

http://jayasreesaranathan.blogspot.com/2008/04/peep-into-past-to-know-whether-castes.html

http://jayasreesaranathan.blogspot.com/2008/06/caste-system-colonial-conception.html

 

 

 

Ecology of Ramayan times

A study of flora & fauna and comparison of the same
with the description in Ramayana
can be read here.

http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/2000c950-9.pdf

Ramalinga Raju – what his horoscope says??

Even as we were consoling ourselves that a dreadful 2008 is over at last,

the new year 2009 knocked us down more rudely with the Satyam Chief

confessing his a-satyam ways!

A grim picture was already staring at us –

those of us who are curious in jyothishic revelations –

as the New year began with the most dreadful planet

Saturn turning retrograde in its inimical sign in Leo.

The house owned by it namely Capricorn is already having Jupiter

moving in debility there.

These two instances, coupled with the up-coming solar eclipse

did not enthuse us as we woke up to the New year.

And what a beginning it turned out to be!

The revelations by Raju with wider and long term ramifications

are something that we the ordinary citizens of India do not deserve.

But Destiny keeps moving in Master strokes.

In this age of Kali, Destiny chooses a single combination

that will be enough to influence a million destinies.

That is what seems to have happened in the Destiny of Ramalinga Raju.

I am not an expert in astrology.

I am always a student in astrology with an undying interest in astrology

in analyzing how it is the “Tool” or Methodology or Process

that the Creator God has employed to connect

Time, Space and Events from Creation to annihilation to

all life forms - plants, animals and humans.

So whatever I am going to say in this post

is an exposition of that tool and

not to scare or implicate or defame or blame someone.

I write as I see and I confess that what I write need not be true astrologically

but true to my jyothishic knowledge as I have understood it.

I go on a premise that the following birth details are that of Ramalinga Raju.

Date of birth – 16-09-1954

Time of birth – 11-19 am

Palce of birth – Bhimavaram.

Birth star – Bharanai -1

Day - Thursday

Lagna – Scorpio.

Thithi – Krishna paksha Chathurthi.

The last 2 details are enough to show what went wrong with him.

A waning moon in the 6^th house,

alone - not surrounded by planets –

forms the deadly and dreaded “KEma Dhruma yoga” –

the yoga that will turn a King to a pauper!!!

This shows that the horoscope as provided below confirms

the birth details given above, as correct.

This yoga is an inherent self- destruction factor

that will wipe out all the other Raja Yogas.

Note the period of his confession and fall –

It happened in Rahu dasa – Moon Bhukthi!

A weak moon left all alone, afflicted with Kemadhruma-

while all the other planets are trapped in the grip of Rahu - Ketu,

is something dreadful.

A week moon, the lord of the Bhaagya, sitting in a dreadful 6^th house

in Kema dhruma struck and wiped out what ever

the exalted Jupiter (lord of dhana and poorva punya),

the exalted Saturn (lord of Dhairya, veerya, kaarya siddhi and comforts, sukha and assets) and the exalted Mercury, the signifactor for Business (lord of Profits and wealth)

could give and were giving.

It wiped out whatever

the Sun in its own house which is the house of profession

could give with Dik bhala and accrued strength in shad varga.

It wiped out whatever

the Mars, the lord of 6^th sitting in 2^nd, was helping him

in turning the weaknesses of his rivals to his advantage.

It wiped out a well-formed

Thrilochana yoga,

Akand saamrajya yoga and

Gaja kesari yoga

-all those yogas that can make a person really lucky and

capable to lead the life of an emperor with all skills and temper!

Why did destiny plant in him this destructive code in the form of Kema dhruma?

It is perhaps he is carrying with him a severe curse of his mother of a previous birth.

His Guru is fine – in exaltation – but hemmed in between melefics!

The Bhagyasthaan is in papakarthari.

So some Guru-drOham (harm to teachers) also is coming along with him in this birth.

And alas, some poorva vasana of ‘kapad’ mentality also has been carried by him.

Look at the exalted Saturn who ought to make him a man of justice and justifiable means.

But he is hidden in 12^th from lagna,

but in powerful 7^th house from a dreaded Moon

that is already carrying bundles of curses.

Saturn joining mandhi, or

Mars joining Rahu or Ketu or

The 4^th lord, Saturn joining these malefics

form Kapata yoga (Dr BV Raman in ‘300 important combinations’ )

The kapata or malefic maneuvers in this yoga are not those of a thief or criminal.

This combination comes along with ‘diplomacy’

Yes. Diplomacy.

Dr BV Raman explains that this yoga is common with

big-wigs, politicians, diplomats and business magnets

who have to employ some dubious means in the name of diplomacy

to achieve a bigger goal for State or diplomatic or business interests.

But in Raju’s case, this ‘kapata’ is in him as a habit.

This is seen from his karakamsa.

His Athma karaka is sun.

This sun is in Sagittarius in the Navamsa.

This is his karakamsa.

The 9^th from this karakamsa has Mars aspected by Venus from Saturn navamsa.

According to sage Jaimini (Adhyaya -1, pada-2 su – 53)

this combination will make the person habituated to

seek illegal gratification and

employ seductive means to gain such ends.

Mars with moon in this combination shows how Kemadhruma has operated.

The Justice Man, Saturn in exaltation in 12^th is in Rahu’s star, swathi.

He afflicts Mars and Rahu by 3^rd aspect,

Moon by 7^th aspect and

Jupiter by 10^th aspect.

Barring Jupiter all the others are in the stars of Venus.

But the Maalavya yoga causing Venus is in the star of Rahu.

So the affliction is complete.

Some offence in a previous birth

done to a female, mother and abuse of bhoomi (ground / earth)

which can not be pardoned had come along with him

in spite of too many other good deeds he had done in previous births.

I don’t find an inner hand of a politician or a collusion with a politician.

What ever connection or collusion he has had is of his own making

for his own ends of achieving more, more and more.

Mars and Rahu closing in the gap between themselves in the house of the Judge (dhanur)

show that it is his

greed, un controlled greed,

his meteoric rise against rivals, his outwitting capacity against the rivals

had given him enormous guts,

fuelled by all the massive Raja yogas which continuously made him

gloat in power and success,

to employ the so-called diplomacy of the ‘kapata’ kind.

The verifying factor for this is that his fall happened at a time

when Mars in transit was crossing his birth degrees of itself.

It also coincided with Saturn in transit going retrograde

in Sun’s degrees in natal horoscope!

The Saturn (from 12^th) – Moon attraction

with the moon in weak wicket

in Krishna paksha Chathurthi and in Kema dhruma,

just made him lose sanity

in his so-called diplomatic maneuvers.

(Varahamihira in Brihad Jataka 23-13).

He has lacked Moon’s positive influence on his intellect.

That is why his fall has happened in Rahu- Moon.

In spite of other Raja yogas and exalted planets in strategic positions,

the bhanga yogas such as

‘Apa-keerthi’ yoga and ‘Rajabhrasta yoga

in addition to Bhandana yoga for imprisonment

(1^st and 6^th lord Mars in Kendra with Rahu-ketu and

aspected by Saturn ensure imprisonment due to political or criminal offences)

had acted to strengthen Kemadhruma.

In a nutshell, it seems that his problem are of his own making.

His thoughts and mind are the causes for his fall.

He has used many means in dubious ways for furthering his interest.

The horoscope indicates

that he did all this out of greed to grow as an emperor in the business world.

He was not particularly intentional in harming any one.

He behaved like a king in olden days

who was ever greedy of expanding his boundaries.

The plans and strategies of such a king may work against his ambitions.

That had happened in the case of Ramalinga Raju.

His many positive yogas and 3 exalted planets and 2 planets in own house

do not show him as a mean minded person.

His poorva karma – a terrible curse-

had made him lose the sense of right,

in seeing what is good and correct and what is not correct.

As a citizen of India, thriving in a corrupt society,

he would have taken all that for granted.

( I am sorry to say like this).

Many big-wigs with ‘kapad’ yoga continue to prosper and go un noticed,

But alas this person who was pivotal to many people’s prosperity lost.

So what will happen to him, to his assets?

This is the million dollar question.

His divisional chart for wealth shows that he will lose all property.

But some respite will be there for him

after September 2010,

when his powerful Guru dasa starts.
Guru is strong in shadbala.

But he will have to undergo imprisonment.

Let us see how things take shape.

What will happen to his ventures?

I don’t know the exact method of doing this.

But I choose to interpret it from what I know.

The 11^th house is for profits, wealth, treasure, acquisitions.

Satyam and other companies are his hard earned ones,

we can not deny that.

This 11^th house indicating his ventures is lorded

by the lord of windfall (8^th) and profits(11^th) Mercury.

The 11^th of this 11^th house is Cancer.

The Arudha of this house falls in Capricorn.

This Arudha has beneficial combinations.

The exalted Guru in 7^th and exalted mercury in 9^th

with moon in dik bla in 4^th and Ketu in a safer 6^th

do indicate that

Satyam is NOT OUT.

It will thrive

but overseas operations will be down.

(Look at 11^th Mars in 12^th with Rahu.)

The Lord of this Arudha (Saturn) in 10^th in exaltation

with the comfortable Venus,

both in Maha purusha yogas with reference to both lagna and Moon,

do foretell

good support from the government and

support from other sections of the society.

The chart as per this is powerful – without major set backs.

So satyam eva jayathe!

With powerful Raja yogas – marred only by Kemadhruma,

I wish Ramalinga Raju comes back –

his intentions are good after all!!!

But he can not revive without wiping off the curse of the Mother.

Nothing but a bath at Sethu samudram can wipe it off!

It is in this context, I get terribly angry with

all those inimical forces -

those fools who want to destroy Sethu bund.

It is the one and only place of rescue for offences of the worst kind,

mainly those against mothers and teachers.

If not for it, mankind can never find salvation from their sins.

The Sethu-k-karai must be strengthened, heightened

so that the waters stop there,

helping the people to take sacred dip there.

By Destiny’s design, Ramalinga Raju was christened that name

as if to remind him that

he must take a bath in Sethu

and offer noon pooja to the Linga at Rameshwaram

on a full moon day.

Hope he comes back at least by 2015 to do that

when his mercury antar dasa starts in Jupiter maha dasa.

Related post on why frauds like Satyamisation happen:-

http://jayasreesaranathan.blogspot.com/2009/01/economics-of-satyamisation.html

satyam is saved... but..

http://jayasreesaranathan.blogspot.com/2009/04/satyam-is-saved-but.html

Updated on 16-12-2009:-

Satyam rises like a phoenix!

**********

Up-dated on 18-08-2010

http://in.news.yahoo.com/139/20100818/808/tnl-satyam-case-andhra-pradesh-high-cour_1.html

Satyam case: Andhra Pradesh High Court grants bail to Raju

Wed, Aug 18 04:10 PM

Hyderabad, Aug 18 (ANI): The Andhra Pradesh High Court on Wednesday granted bail to former Satyam Computers Chairman B Ramalinga Raju in connection with the multi-crore financial scam case.

Raju has now been admitted to Hyderabad's Nizam Institute of Medical Sciences (NIMS) citing health grounds.

Raju has been directed to stay in Hyderabad and present himself before the court post his discharge

Earlier on July 23, a local court had adjourned the case of examination of Raju through a questionnaire and nine other accused in connection with the scam to July 26.

The Andhra Pradesh High Court had on January 20 granted bail to five accused including Raju's bother B Rama Raju and former CFO of Satyam Computers Vadlamani Srinivas in the case.

Raju, resigned as Satyam Computer Services Ltd. Chairman after being charged for his role in a Rs 7,100 crore financial scam. (ANI)

Rain in Chennai on Vaikuntha Ekaadasi.

Residents of Chennai were taken by surprise by the sudden spell of rain on the day of Vaikuntha Ekaadasi. Usually this is a time of dry spell with chilly mornings and a dull sun during the day. Rainfall is generally not expected during this month.


As one observing the days in this period of "garbOttam" (embryo formation for rainfall), I am eagerly awaiting for the day that comes after 195 days from Vaikuntha Ekaadasi. The embryonic indicators at the three levels, terrestrial, atmospheric and heavenly / planetary levels are not all that promising. Particularly at the planetary level, the crowding of most planets in Sagittarius and and Capricorn are not good for rainfall embryo - though it is said that combustion of planets at the solstices is good for rainfall after 195 days. But the up coming eclipse will mar all that effect. Eclipse and earth quakes will abort the rainfall-fetus, says Brihat Samhita quoting sages.


But it is not totally a gloomy rainy season in the coming year.
The symptoms had existed all these days and those on Vaikuntha Ekaadasi need a special mention. The rainy season next year will however begin well.


Atmospherically, the rain on Vaikuntha Ekaadasi was accompanied with positive features of embryo formation - a glossy sun seen through the clouds, bulky white clouds surging in the east and an over-all pleasantness felt in the day - are good for rainfall formation. But the rains must be mild, not wild accompanied with winds.


In my place we experienced pleasant and mild rains, indicating a torrid rainfall on the Krishna paksha Ekaadasi in the month of Shravana. On that day rains can be expected at night from the Western direction.


The rationale is that the embryo formed on a day in the months starting from Maargazhi, will fall as rains after 195 days (6 & 1/2 lunar months) . If the indicators are seen in the day, the rains will be at night. If formed at Shukla paksha, rains will be in Krishna paksha. If clouds are seen in the east, rains will be from the west. The happenings will be in the opposite of what was experienced at the embryonic stage.


I am sure the day of Vaikuntha Ekaadasi showed signs of GarbOttam - embryo formation for rainfall.


But the coming days are not good for GarbOttam. The planetary position and the upcoming eclipse will mar embryo formation. After a torrential rain in Krishna paksha Shravana, we can expect a dry spell. But for further rain-prediction, we have to watch the days in the next 3 months.


Terrestrially, Maargazhi in Chennai showed good signs for embryo formation. Even though Paavai nonbu is not done these days, movement in the pre-dawn time can be seen with fresh faces going to temples. We must thank the Iyappa devotees whose number is increasing year after year. The Iyappa devotees have filled the gap of Paavai nonbu- conditions!!

How to determine Tamil New Year's day?

The following sent by a friend expresses wonderfully how the New Year is determined. The designer of these pictures is not known. Or it could be one Mr JanakiRaman.
Hats off to him for explaining in an easy and simple way how the New Year was determined by the Tamils.


The Sun at its peak at Vernal equinox ( known as Vishuvat in Sanskrit) is the time of the beginning of the New Year. Earlier it coincided with the entry of the Sun in Aries. This point is known as Mesha sankramana. But due to backward movement of this point (precession of the equinox) the vernal equinox comes in March. It is impractical to shift the New year in accordance with the shifting equinox.


So a specific time with reference to the Sun was taken as a point of beginning. This point must have some rationale to be considered as a beginning. The Mesha sankramana is the point associated with an important beginning. The Chathur maha yugas started when the sun was at Mesha sankramana (sun at 0 degrees Aries). The day marked by this entry is like the Birth day of the New cycle of life and events.


Whenever we think of our Birthdays, we immediately wish that the coming year in our life must be good and happy. Similarly the starting of a New cycle of the sun which plays a pivotal role in agriculture, rainfall and accompanying prosperity was needed to be analysed to know how the next one year is going to be.


The Tamil Siddhas who also happened to be astrologers analysed from this angle for which they took up the entry of the Sun in Aries as the point capable of giving leads and inputs to their predictions. Astrologically, events must be known from Sun's movement. The Tajaka system of yearly prediction takes into account the position of the Sun in one's birth chart. The starting point for prediction in this system takes into account the sun's degrees at the time of birth. Similarly the earth's or mankind's birth time is taken as the beginning. This coincided with the time when the sun was in 0 degrees Aries (known from Puranas and astrological texts). This point is capable of giving correct predictions for the year ahead. That is why the New year always comes with a Panchanga and predictions for the ensuing year. Western astrology also follows the system of keeping sun's position as the nodal point for making predictions.


It must be analysed whether the Festival of Indra (இந்திர விழா ) that was regularly celebrated in Tamil's land from times of yore marked the beginning of the New year (Vernal equinox). Silappadhikaram mentioned that the Indra Vizha started on the Full Moon of Chitthirai. It is probable to assume that the Equinox coincided with the Full Moon of Chitthirai (coinciding with the entry of the sun in Aries at that time). Presently we are celebrating the Lunar New year on the day after New Moon.


The solar year always starts on zero degrees Aries. Since we have verses written by Tamil Siddhas (particularly இடைக்காட்டு சித்தர் ) on this point (of Mesha sankramana) and related predictions based on sun's entry, it can be said that following the Solar calender of Meshasankramana had been in vogue in the Tamil society. Certainly it is not on Makara sankramana, the first day of Thai which marked the completion of பாவை நோன்பு and starting of a new nonbu for longevity of the husband - called as Thai neeradal.



Related posts:-

http://www.scribd.com/doc/13628496/Tamil-New-Year-in-Chitthirai-or-Thai

http://jayasreesaranathan.blogspot.com/2009/01/absurdity-of-as-tamil-new-year.html

http://jayasreesaranathan.blogspot.com/2008/12/connection-between-paavai-nonbu-and.html

http://jayasreesaranathan.blogspot.com/2008/04/tamil-new-year-at-avani.html

http://jayasreesaranathan.blogspot.com/2008/04/thiruvalluvar-aandu-what-karunanidhi.html

http://jayasreesaranathan.blogspot.com/2008/04/tamil-new-year-latest-explanation-from.html

http://jayasreesaranathan.blogspot.com/2008/04/it-is-varusha-p-pirappu-not-chitthirai.html

http://jayasreesaranathan.blogspot.com/2008/04/yugadhi-vishu-new-years-at-their.html

http://jayasreesaranathan.blogspot.com/2008/02/new-year-for-tamils-suggestion-to-mr.html

http://jayasreesaranathan.blogspot.com/2008/02/cosmology-of-hindu-calendar-does-not.html

http://jayasreesaranathan.blogspot.com/2008/02/karunanidhis-tryst-with-calendar.html

Now scroll down this page and clear your doubts on when the தமிழ் புத்தாண்டு comes!

Origin of the word “Hindu”

Antiquity and Origin of the Term 'Hindu'

By Dr. Murlidhar H. Pahoja

The anti-Hindu historians like Romila Thapar and D.N. Jha have opined that the word 'Hindu' was given currency by the Arabs in the 8th century. They however, do not explain the basis of their conclusion nor do they cite any evidence in support of their claim. Even Arab Muslim writers do not make such an extravagant claim.

Another theory propounded by European writers is that the word 'Hindu' is a Persian corruption of 'Sindhu' resulting from the Persian practice of replacing 'S' with 'H'. Even here, no evidence is cited. In fact the word Persia itself contains 'S' which should have become 'Perhia' if this theory was correct.

The present paper examines the above two theories in the light of epigraphic and literary evidence available from Persian, Indian, Greek, Chinese and Arabic sources. The evidence appears to support the conclusion that 'Hindu' like 'Sindhu', has been in use since the Vedic age and that although 'Hindu' is a modified form of 'Sindhu', its origin lies in the Saurashtran practice of pronouncing 'H' in place of 'S'.

Epigraphic Evidence

The Hamadan, Persepolis and Naqsh-I-Rustam Inscriptions of Persian monarch Darius mention a people 'Hidu' as included in his empire. These inscriptions are dated between 520-485 B.C. This fact establishes that the term 'Hi(n)du' was current more than 500 years before Christ.

Xerexes, successor of Darius, in his inscriptions at Persepolis, gives names of countries under his rule. The list includes 'Hidu'. Xerexes was ruling between 485-465 B.C. On a tomb in Persepolis, in another inscription assigned to Artaxerexes (404-395 B.C.), there are three figures above which are inscribed 'iyam Qataguviya' (this is Satygidian), 'iyam Ga(n)dariya' (this is Gandhara) and 'iyam Hi(n)duviya' (this is Hi(n)du). The Asokan inscriptions (3rd century B.C.) repeatedly use expressions like 'Hida' for 'India' and 'Hida loka' for 'Indian nation'.

'Hida' and its derivative forms are used more than 70 times in the Ashokan inscriptions. For instance in the Jaugadha, separate rock edict II, the lines 3 & 4, read:

All men are my people. I desire for my people that they may be provided with all welfare and happiness. I desire for my people, including the people of Hind and beyond and I desire for all men.

The Edict further, says in lines 7 & 8

Dhamma may be followed and the people of Hind and beyond may be served.

The Ashokan inscriptions establish the antiquity of the name 'Hind' for India to at least third century B.C.

In Persepolis Pahlvi inscriptions of Shahpur II (310 A.D.) the king has the titles shakanshah hind shakastan u tuxaristan dabiran dabir, "king of Shakastan, minister of ministers of Hind Shakastan and Tukharistan."

The epigraphic evidence from the Achaemenid, Ashokan and Sasanian Pahlvi records puts a question mark on the theory about the term 'Hindu' having originated in Arab usage in the 8th century A.D. Literary evidence takes the antiquity of the word 'Hindu' back to at least 1000 B.C. and possibly 5000 B.C.

Evidence from Pahlvi Avesta

In the Avesta, Hapta-Hindu is used for Sanskrit Sapta-Sindhu, the Avesta being dated variously between 5000-1000 B.C. This indicates that the term 'Hindu' is as old as the word 'Sindhu.' Sindhu is a Vedik term used in the Rigveda. And therefore, 'Hindu' is as ancient as the Rigveda.

In the Avestan Gatha 'Shatir', 163rd Verse speaks of the visit of Veda Vyas to the court of Gustashp and in the presence of Zorashtra, Veda Vyas introduces himself saying 'man marde am Hind jijad.' (I am man born in 'Hind.') Veda Vyas was an elder contemporary of Shri Krishna (3100 B.C.).

Greek Usage

The Greek term 'Indoi' is a softened form of 'Hindu' where the initial 'H' was dropped as the Greek alphabet has no aspirate. This term 'Indoi' was used in Greek literature by Hekataeus (late 6th century B.C.) and Herodotus (early 5th century B.C.), thus establishing that the Greeks were using this derivative of 'Hindu' as early as 6th century B.C.

The Hebrew Bible

The Hebrew bible uses 'Hodu' for India, which is a Judaic form of 'Hindu'. The Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) is considered earlier than 300 B.C. Today's Hebrew spoken in Israel also uses Hodu for India.

The Chinese Testimony

The Chinese used the term 'Hien-tu' for 'Hindu' about 100 B.C.11 While describing movements of the Sai-Wang (100 B.C.), the Chinese annals state that the Sai-Wang went towards the South and passing Hien-tu reached Ki-Pin.

Later Chinese travellers Fa-Hien (5th century A.D.) and Huen-Tsang (7th century A.D.) use a slightly modified term 'Yintu' but the affinity to 'Hindu' is still retained. This term 'Yintu' continues to be used till today

Pre-Islamic Arabic Literature

Sair-ul-Okul is an anthology of ancient Arabic poetry available in the Turkish library Makhtab-e-Sultania in Istanbul. In this anthology is included a poem by Prophet Mohammed's uncle Omar-bin-e-Hassham. The poem is in praise of Mahadev (Shiva), and uses 'Hind' for India and 'Hindu' for Indians. Some verses are quoted below:

Wa Abaloha ajabu armeeman Mahadevo Manojail ilamuddin minhum wa sayattaru
If but once one worships Mahadev with devotion, One will attain the ultimate salvation.

Wa sahabi Kay yam feema Kamil Hinda e Yauman, Wa Yakulam na latabahan foeennak Tawajjaru. (Oh Lord grant me but one day's sojourn in Hind, Where one can attain spiritual bliss.)

Massayare akhalakan hasanan Kullahum, Najumam aja at Summa gabul Hindu.
(But one pilgrimage there gets one all merit, And the company of great Hindu saints.)

The same anthology has another poem by Labi-bin-e Akhtab bin-e Turfa who is dated 2300 years before Mohammed i.e. 1700 B.C. This poem also uses 'Hind' for India and 'Hindu' for Indian. The poem also mentions the four Vedas Sama, Yajur, Rig and Athar. This poem is quoted on columns in the Laxmi Narayan Mandir in New Delhi, popularly known as Birla Mandir (Temple)

Some verses are as follows:

Aya muwarekal araj yushaiya noha minar Hinda e, wa aradakallha manyonaifail jikaratun. (Oh the Divine land of Hind, blessed art thou, thou art chosen land showered with divine knowledge.)

Wahalatjali Yatun ainana sahabi akhatun jikra, Wahajayahi yonajjalur rasu minal Hindatun. (That celetial knowledge shines with such brilliance, Through the words of Hindu saints in fourfold abundance.)

Yakuloonallaha ya ahlal araf alameen kullahum, fattabe-u jikaratul Veda bukkun malam yonajjaylatun. (God enjoins on all, follow with devotion, path shown by Veda with divine percept.)

Wahowa alamus Sama wal Yajur minallahay Tanajeelan, Fa e noma ya akhigo mutibayan Yobasshariyona jatun. (Overflowing with knowledge are Sama and Yajur for Man, Brothers, follow the path which guides you to salvation.)

Wa isa nain huma Rig Athar nasahin ka Khuwatun, Wa asanat Ala-udan wabowa masha e ratun (Also the two Rig and Athar(va) teach us fraternity, taking shelter under their lusture, dispels darkness.)

'Hindu' in Sanskrit Literature

Another doubt created by the modern day anglicized historian is that the term 'Hindu' is not found used in Sanskrit literature. This misconception can be dispelled by quoting from Sanskrit works15 : Meru tantra (es#rU=) (4th to 6th century A.D.), a Shaiva text, comments on 'Hindu'.

Hindu is one who discards the mean and the ignoble.

The same idea is expressed in Shabda Kalpadruma.

Brihaspati Agam says,

Starting from Himalaya up to Indu waters is this God-created country Hindustan

Parijat Haran Natak describes Hindu as,

Hindu is one who with penance washes one's sins and evil thoughts and with arms destroys one's enemies.

Madhava Digvijaya states,

One who meditates on Omkar as the primeal sound, believes in karma & reincarnation, has reverence for the cow, who is devoted to Bharat, and abhors evil, is deserving of being called Hindu.

Vriddha Smriti defines Hindu as,

One who abhors the mean and the ignoble, and is of noblebearing, who reveres the Veda, the cow, and the deity, is a Hindu.

Similarly other Sanskrit works which use the term 'Hindu' are, Kalika Puran, Bhavishya Puran, Adbhut Kosh, Medini Kosh, Ram Kosh etc. Even Kalidas has used a derivative form 'Haindava.'

'Hindu' and 'Sindhu'

Another theory says that 'Hindu' originated from the Persian practice of replacing 'S' with 'H'. This does not seem to be true is evident from the fact that Sindh has not become Hind and both Sindh and Hind exist in Persian as well as Arabic.
The inscriptions of Darius and Xerexes which describe India as Hi(n)du, also use the term 'Sugd' for Sogdiana. This 'Sugd' should have become 'Hugd' as per this theory. The Pahlvi inscription of Shahpur II, uses 'S' in Shakastan and Tuxaristan.

But it cannot be denied that Hindu is a form of Sindhu. It needs to be realised that this change from S to H is common in Saurashtra where Sorath becomes Horath, Somnath becomes Homnath and so on. The form Hindu is therefore, likely to have come from Saurashtra.

It should also be noted that as per Nirukta rules of grammar, in the Vedik language, replacement of S with H is permitted

Conclusion

Epigraphic evidence takes the antiquity of 'Hindu' back to at least 500 B.C. Use of 'Hindu' as part of 'Hapta-Hindu' in the Avesta suggests that 'Hindu' is as old as 'Sindhu' and therefore, belongs to the Vedic age. Regarding the origin of 'Hindu' from 'Sindhu', the Saurashtran practice of pronouncing 'H' in place of 'S' provides the answer.

Related article on Paramacharyal's opinion

http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part2/chap1.htm